Revisiting the phylogeny of Corydalis with nuclear genes: Implications for its phylogenetic conflict and infrageneric classification

Abstract

Robust phylogenies and comprehensive taxonomies are fundamental for understanding the evolution and classification of species-rich genera. Corydalis (Papaveraceae), comprising approximately 530 species, is one of the largest and most diverse angiosperm genera. While a recent classification system has been established based on phylogenomic and morphological evidence, it relied primarily on plastid genomic data, with limited consideration given to nuclear genes. Here, we compiled the genome skimming data from 411 accessions representing 265 species covering all 39 recognized sections of Corydalis. Using 6617 high-quality nuclear single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and eight single-copy nuclear genes (SCNs), we reconstructed a comprehensive phylogenetic framework for Corydalis. Our results strongly supported the division of Corydalis into four subgenera, including subg. Cremnocapnos, subg. Bipapillatae, subg. Sophorocapnos, and subg. Corydalis. Of the 33 sections sampled with multiple species, 10 were recovered as non-monophyletic, including sect. Cheilanthifoliae, sect. Thalictrifoliae, sect. Vermiculares, sect. Rupifragae, sect. Asterostigmata, sect. Mucronatae, sect. Elatae, sect. Fasciculatae, sect. Flexuosae, and sect. Bimaculatae. Phylogenetic network analyses revealed pervasive hybridization and introgression in subg. Corydalis, suggesting that widespread hybridization and introgression are major drivers of both phylogenetic discordance and sectional non-monophyly. Our study not only provides a critical nuclear genomic perspective for Corydalis but also offers concrete guidance for refining its infrageneric classification. In addition, our findings underscore the necessity of future studies that integrate expanded sampling, high-quality genetic markers, and morphological data to resolve the classification of taxonomically problematic sections.

Keywords

Corydalis / hybridization / monophyly / phylogeny / single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) / single-copy nuclear gene (SCN)

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2026 Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences.