Blockchain technologies have the potential to revolutionise many industries. Consensus mechanisms are essential for ensuring consensus among distributed network members. This paper examines the various blockchain consensus mechanisms employed in multiple applications and compares their functionality and characteristics. In particular, we categorise these consensus mechanisms based on the type of trust they establishranging from direct, indirect, implicit, explicit, cognitive, and affective. Thus, it offers a structured framework for understanding their respective strengths. We industries. We highlight their strengths and weaknesses to understand how they work in practice. In this era of rapid technological transformation, this paper contributes to the ever-growing debate on how to adopt, innovate, and optimise blockchain technology. We aim to advance the knowledge of decentralised solutions to real-world problems by providing practical information about how blockchain can drive improvements across the industry.
| [1] |
Abdella J A, Tari Z, Sohrabi N, Mahmud R. MuLCOff: A multi-layer consensus and off-chain computation for efficient and privacy-aware blockchain-based peer-to-peer energy trading. IEEE Network, 2024, 38(5): 264-272
|
| [2] |
Alshuaibi E A, Hamdi A M, Hussain F K. Volunteer computing for fog scalability: A systematic literature review. Internet of Things, 2024, 25: 101072
|
| [3] |
Alsobhi H A, Alakhtar R A, Ubaid A, Hussain O K, Hussain F K. Blockchain-based micro-credentialing system in higher education institutions: Systematic literature review. Knowledge-Based Systems, 2023, 265: 110238
|
| [4] |
Angelis S D, Aniello L, Baldoni R, Lombardi F, Margheri A, Sassone V. PBFT vs proof-of-authority: Applying the CAP theorem to permissioned blockchain. Proceedings of the Second Italian Conference on Cyber Security, 2018, February 6–9, 2018
|
| [5] |
Armknecht F, Karame G O, Mandal A, Youssef F, Zenner E. Ripple: Overview and outlook. Proceedings of Trust and Trustworthy Computing: 8th International Conference, 2015, 24–26, 2015
|
| [6] |
Baboi M. Security of consensus mechanisms in blockchain. Romanian Cyber Security Journal, 2023, 5(2): 45-53
|
| [7] |
Bach L M, Mihaljevic B, Zagar M. Comparative analysis of blockchain consensus algorithms. 2018 41st International Convention on Information and Communication Technology, Electronics and Microelectronics (MIPRO), 2018, May 15–21, 2018
|
| [8] |
Badhwar A, Islam S, Tan C S L. Exploring the potential of blockchain technology within the fashion and textile supply chain with a focus on traceability, transparency, and product authenticity: A systematic review. Frontiers in Blockchain, 2023, 6: 1044723
|
| [9] |
Balani N, Chavan P. Design of heuristic model to improve blockchain-based sidechain configuration. International Journal of Computational Science and Engineering, 2023, 26(4): 372-384
|
| [10] |
Baldoni R, Helary J M, Raynal M. From crash fault-tolerance to arbitrary-fault tolerance: Towards a modular approach. Proceeding International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks, 2000, June 23–26, 2000
|
| [11] |
Baliga A. Understanding blockchain consensus models. Persistent, 2017, 4(1): 14
|
| [12] |
Bamakan S M H, Motavali A, Bondarti A B. A survey of blockchain consensus algorithms performance evaluation criteria. Expert Systems with Applications, 2020, 154(1): 113385
|
| [13] |
Bathula A, Muhuri S, Gupta S, Merugu S. Secure certificate sharing based on blockchain framework for online education. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 2022, 82(11): 16479-16500
|
| [14] |
Bazzi R A, Neiger G. Simplifying fault-tolerance. Journal of the ACM, 2001, 48(3): 499-554
|
| [15] |
Behfar S K, Crowcroft J. Decentralized crowdsourcing medical data sharing platform to obtain chronological rare data. Data & Policy, 2024, 6: e9
|
| [16] |
Benstead A V, Mwesiumo D, Moradlou H, Boffelli A. Entering the world behind the clothes that we wear: Practical applications of blockchain technology. Production Planning & Control, 2024, 35(9): 947-964
|
| [17] |
Bentov I, Lee C, Mizrahi A, Rosenfeld M. Proof of activity: Extending bitcoin’s proof of work via proof of stake. ACM SIGMETRICS Performance Evaluation Review, 2014, 42(3): 34-37
|
| [18] |
Brereton P, Kitchenham B A, Budgen D, Turner M, Khalil M. Lessons from applying the systematic literature review process within the software engineering domain. Journal of Systems and Software, 2007, 80(4): 571-583
|
| [19] |
Buchman E. Tendermint: Byzantine fault tolerance in the age of blockchains, 2016,
|
| [20] |
Budgen D, Brereton P. Performing systematic literature reviews in software engineering. Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Software Engineering, 2006, May 20–28, 2006
|
| [21] |
Buterin V, Griffith V (2017). Casper the friendly finality gadget. arXiv:1710.09437.
|
| [22] |
Cachin C, Schubert S, Vukoli M (2016). Non-determinism in Byzantine fault-tolerant replication. arXiv: 1603.07351.
|
| [23] |
Cachin C, Vukolić Marko (2017). Blockchain consensus protocols in the wild. arXiv: 1707.01873.
|
| [24] |
Cai T, Chen W, Psannis K E, Goudos S K, Yu Y, Zheng Z, Wan S. Scalable on-chain and off-chain blockchain for sharing economy in large-scale wireless networks. IEEE Wireless Communications, 2022, 29(3): 32-38
|
| [25] |
Campos. Blockchain andfashion’s sustainable development: A systematic literature review. Global Fashion Conference, 2024, October 11–12, 2024
|
| [26] |
Carrara G R, Mattos D M F, de Albuquerque C V N. Vicinity-based consensus: A fast in-neighborhood convergence consensus mechanism for blockchain. 2021 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), 2021, December 7–11, 2021
|
| [27] |
Castro M, Liskov B. Practical Byzantine fault tolerance. Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDI’ 99), 1999, February 22–25, 1999
|
| [28] |
Charapko A, Ailijiang A, Demirbas M. Bridging paxos and blockchain consensus. 2018 IEEE international conference on internet of things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing and Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical and Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData), 2018, July 30–August 3, 2018
|
| [29] |
Chen L, Xu L, Shah N, Gao Z, Lu Y, Shi W. On security analysis of proof-of-elapsed-time (PoET). Proceedings of 19th International Symposium Stabilization, Safety and Security of Distributed Systems, 2017, November 5–8, 2017
|
| [30] |
Chen Y. How blockchain adoption affects supply chain sustainability in the fashion industry: A systematic review and case studies. International Transactions in Operational Research, 2023, 31(6): 3592-3620
|
| [31] |
Chen Z. Enhancing the engineering supervision process in China: A solution enabled by integrating hybrid blockchain system. Innovation and Green Development, 2023, 2(4): 100091
|
| [32] |
Chen W, Yang Z, Zhang J, Liang J, Sun Q, Zhou F. Enhancing blockchain performance via on-chain and off-chain collaboration. International Conference on Service-Oriented Computing 2023, 2023, November 18–December 1, 2023
|
| [33] |
Cheng L, Lv Z, Alfarraj O, Tolba A, Yu X, Ren Y. Secure cross-chain interaction solution in multi-blockchain environment. Heliyon, 2023, 10(7): e28861
|
| [34] |
de Morais A M, Lins F A A, Rosa N S. Survey on integration of consensus mechanisms in IoT-based blockchains. Journal of Universal Computer Science, 2023, 29(10): 1139
|
| [35] |
Ding Y, Wu Z, Miao Y, Xie L, Ding M. Genuine on-chain and off-chain collaboration: Achieving secure and non-repudiable file sharing in blockchain applications. IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management, 2024, 21(2): 1802-1816
|
| [36] |
Dong W, Yin J, Chen S, Zhu H. Formalization and verification of the zab protocol using CSP. International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Computing: Applications and Technologies, 2023, August 15–18, 2023
|
| [37] |
Du M, Ma X, Zhang Z, Wang X, Chen Q. A review on consensus algorithm of blockchain. 2017 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (SMC), 2017, October 5–8, 2017
|
| [38] |
Duan S, Peisert S, Levitt K N. HBFT: Speculative Byzantine fault tolerance with minimum cost. IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, 2015, 12(1): 58-70
|
| [39] |
Feichtinger R, Fritsch R, Vonlanthen Y, Wattenhofer R. The hidden shortcomings of (D) AOs–An empirical study of on-chain governance. 2023 International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security, 2023, May 1–5, 2023
|
| [40] |
Feng D, Zhang L, Zhang S, Wu Q, Xia X. Blockchain-based secure crowdsourcing in wireless IoT. Journal of Communications and Information Networks, 2022, 7(1): 23-36
|
| [41] |
Ferdous M S, Chowdhury M J M, Hoque M A. A survey of consensus algorithms in public blockchain systems for crypto-currencies. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 2021, 182: 103035
|
| [42] |
Fu X, Wang H, Shi P. A survey of Blockchain consensus algorithms: Mechanism, design and applications. Science China Information Sciences, 2020, 64(2): 121101
|
| [43] |
Fohrer N, Gade A, Muschkiet M. Digitalization in logistics for textiles–possible fields of application for the blockchain technology. Communications in Development and Assembling of Textile Products, 2024, 5(1): 38-47
|
| [44] |
Fu X, Wang H, Shi P. A survey of Blockchain consensus algorithms: Mechanism, design and applications. Science China Information Sciences, 2020, 64(2): 1-15
|
| [45] |
Gamage HTM, Weerasinghe HD, Dias NG. A survey on blockchain technology concepts, applications, and issues. SN Computer Science, 2020, 2020(1): 114
|
| [46] |
Gaži P, Kiayias A, Russell A. Stake-bleeding attacks on proof-of-stake blockchains. 2018 Crypto Valley Conference on Blockchain Technology (CVCBT), 2018, June 20–22, 2018
|
| [47] |
Gennaro R, Robshaw M. Advances in Cryptology–CRYPTO 2015, 2015, Santa Barbara, CA, USA. Springer
|
| [48] |
Ghosh A, Gupta S, Dua A, Kumar N. Security of Cryptocurrencies in blockchain technology: State-of-art, challenges and future prospects. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 2020, 163: 102635
|
| [49] |
Gilad Y, Hemo R, Micali S, Vlachos G, Zeldovich N. Algorand: Scaling Byzantine agreements for cryptocurrencies. Proceedings of the 26th ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles (SOSP 2017), 2017, October 29–31, 2017
|
| [50] |
Goel P, Ghosh M. Blockchain-based secure and efficient crowdsourcing framework. Computer Networks and Inventive Communication Technologies: Proceedings of Third ICCNCT 2020, 2020, July 23–24, 2020
|
| [51] |
Gogol K, Kraner B, Schlosser M, Yan T, Tessone C, Stiller B (2024). Empirical and theoretical analysis of liquid staking protocols. arXiv: 2401.16353.
|
| [52] |
Gramoli V. From blockchain consensus back to Byzantine consensus. Future Generation Computer Systems, 2020, 107: 760-769
|
| [53] |
Guru A, Mohanta B K, Mohapatra H, Al-Turjman F, Altrjman C, Yadav A. A survey on consensus protocols and attacks on blockchain technology. Applied Sciences, 2023, 13(4): 2604
|
| [54] |
Han X, Liu Y. Research on the consensus mechanisms of blockchain technology. Netinfo Security, 2017, 5(9): 147-152
|
| [55] |
Hao Z, Yahya M Y B, Lu J. Influence of blockchain technology application in education on online teaching resources sharing. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (IJET), 2023, 18(11): 25-37
|
| [56] |
Haque M, Kumar V V, Singh P, Goyal A A, Upreti K, Verma A. A systematic meta-analysis of blockchain technology for educational sector and its advancements towards education 4.0. Education and Information Technologies, 2023, 28(10): 13841-13867
|
| [57] |
Haque M A, Haque S, Zeba S, Kumar K, Ahmad S, Rahman M, Marisennayya S, Ahmed L. Sustainable and efficient E-learning internet of things system through blockchain technology. E-Learning and Digital Media, 2023, 21(3): 216-235
|
| [58] |
Hong Z, Guo S, Zhou E, Chen W, Huang H, Zomaya A. GriDB: Scaling blockchain database via sharding and off-chain cross-shard mechanism. 49th International Conference on Very Large Data Bases, VLDB, 2023, August 28–September 1 2023
|
| [59] |
Howell A, Saber T, Bendechache M. Measuring node decentralisation in blockchain peer to peer networks. Blockchain: Research and Applications., 2023, 4(1): 100109
|
| [60] |
Huang C T, Njilla L, Geng T. Consensus of whom? A spectrum of blockchain consensus protocols and new directions. Proceedings of Fifth IEEE Annual International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2 2019), 2019, October 14–17, 2019
|
| [61] |
Ipchi Sheshgelani M, Pashazadeh S, Salehpoor P. Cooperative hybrid consensus with function optimization for blockchain. Cluster Computing, 2022, 26(6): 3565-3576
|
| [62] |
Ismail L, Materwala H. A review of blockchain architecture and consensus protocols: Use cases, challenges, and solutions. Symmetry, 2019, 11(10): 1198
|
| [63] |
Jain S, Shrivastava A, Brahmi M. Consumer acceptance toward blockchain technology for anticounterfeiting: Hype, credence or future. International Journal of Business Innovation and Research, 2024, 34(1): 90-108
|
| [64] |
Jeon S, Doh I, Chae K. RMBC: Randomised mesh blockchain using DBFT consensus algorithm. 2018 International Conference on Information Networking (ICOIN), 2018, January 10–12, 2018
|
| [65] |
Junqueira F P, Reed B C, Serafini M. Zab: Highperformance broadcast for primary-backup systems. 2011 IEEE/IFIP 41st International Conference on Dependable Systems & Networks (DSN), 2011, June 27–30, 2011
|
| [66] |
Kadadha M, Singh S, Mizouni R, Otrok H. A context-aware blockchain-based crowdsourcing framework: Open challenges and opportunities. IEEE Access, 2022, 10: 93659-93673
|
| [67] |
Kalajdjieski J, Raikwar M, Arsov N, Velinov G, Gligoroski D. Databases fit for blockchain technology: A complete overview. Blockchain: Research and Applications, 2023, 4(1): 100116
|
| [68] |
Karantias K, Kiayias A, Zindros D. Proof-of-burn. Financial Cryptography and Data Security: 24th International Conference, 2019, February 10–14, 2020
|
| [69] |
Katiyar N, Verma S, Kumar M, Kumar P, Sahu D. Decentralized consensus mechanisms in blockchain: A comparative analysis. International Journal on Recent and Innovation Trends in Computing and Communication, 2023, 11(11): 1-9
|
| [70] |
Kaur S, Chaturvedi S, Sharma A, Kar J. A research survey on applications of consensus protocols in blockchain. Hindawi Security and Communication Networks, 2021, 2021(1): 6693731
|
| [71] |
Kitchenham B, Brereton O P, Budgen D, Turner M, Bailey J, Linkman S. Systematic literature reviews in software engineering – A systematic literature review. Information and Software Technology, 2009, 51(1): 7-15
|
| [72] |
Krishnamohan T. Proof of identity–A blockchain consensus algorithm to create a dynamically permissioned blockchain. International Journal of Blockchains and Cryptocurrencies, 2022, 3(4): 289-301
|
| [73] |
Kumari T, Kumar R, Dwivedi R K. Designing blockchain based consensus mechanism for smart healthcare IoT. 2023 International Conference on Intelligent and Innovative Technologies in Computing, Electrical and Electronics (IITCEE), 2023, January 27–28, 2023
|
| [74] |
Lamport L. Paxos made simple. ACM SIGACT News, 2001, 32(4): 51-58
|
| [75] |
Lashkari B, Musilek P. A comprehensive review of blockchain consensus mechanisms. IEEE Access, 2021, 9: 43620-43652
|
| [76] |
Li W, Andreina S, Bohli J M, Karame G. Securing proof-of-stake blockchain protocols. Data Privacy Management, Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain Technology: ESORICS 2017 International Workshops, DPM 2017 and CBT 2017, 2017, September 14–15, 2017
|
| [77] |
Li X, Zhu Q, Qi N, Huang J, Yuan Y, Wang F Y. Blockchain consensus algorithms: A survey. 2021 China Automation Congress (CAC), 2021, October 22–24 2021
|
| [78] |
Li S, Bai X, Wei S. Blockchain-based crowdsourcing framework with distributed task assignment and solution verification. Security and Communication Networks, 2022, 2022(1): 1-16
|
| [79] |
Li L, Jiao S, Shen Y, Liu B, Pedrycz W, Chen Y, Tang X. A two-stage consensus model for large-scale group decision-making considering dynamic social networks. Information Fusion, 2023, 100: 101972
|
| [80] |
Li L, Wu J, Cui. A review of blockchain cross-chain technology. IET Blockchain, 2023, 3(3): 149-158
|
| [81] |
Li W, Deng X, Liu J, Zhang Y, Lou X. Delegated proof of stake consensus mechanism based on community discovery and credit incentive. Entropy, 2023, 25(9): 1320
|
| [82] |
Li Y, Zhao J, Chen Z. Analyzing the delivery determination problem of new retail stores considering crowd-sourcing under the background of blockchain. Research in Transportation Business and Management, 2024, 52: 101083
|
| [83] |
Lin Y, Gao Z, Du H, Kang J, Niyato D, Wang Q, Ruan J, Wan S. DRL-based adaptive sharding for blockchain-based federated learning. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 2023, 71(10): 5992-6004
|
| [84] |
Liao Z, Cheng S. RVC: A reputation and voting based blockchain consensus mechanism for edge computing-enabled IoT systems. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 2023, 209: 103510
|
| [85] |
Lin I, Liao T. A survey of blockchain security issues and challenges. International Journal of Network Security, 2017, 19(5): 653-659
|
| [86] |
Liu S, Liu Z, Zhu X, Pan X, Chen B. Incentive mechanism of online leaning based on blockchain. 2023 5th International Conference on Advanced Information Science and System (AISS 2023), 2023, December 1–3, 2023
|
| [87] |
Liu W, Zhu J, Chiclana F. Large-scale group consensus hybrid strategies with three-dimensional clustering optimisation based on normal cloud models. Information Fusion, 2023, 94: 66-91
|
| [88] |
Liu Y, Xing X, Cheng H, Li D, Guan Z, Liu J, Wu Q. A flexible sharding blockchain protocol based on cross-shard byzantine fault tolerance. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, 2023, 18: 2276-2291
|
| [89] |
Luo K, Yu W, Wang S. A multiple blockchains architecture on inter-blockchain communication. IEEE International Conference on Software Quality, Reliability and Security Companion, 2018, July 16–20, 2018
|
| [90] |
Mazieres D. The stellar consensus protocol: A federated model for Internet-level consensus. Stellar Development Foundation, 2015, 32(4): 1-45
|
| [91] |
Migliorini S. Enhancing blockchain smart-contracts with proof-of location. Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Geographic Information Science (GIScience 2018), 2018, August 28–31, 2018
|
| [92] |
Mohanta B K, Jena D, Panda S S, Sobhanayak S. Blockchain technology: A survey on applications and security privacy challenges. Internet of Things, 2019, 8: 100107
|
| [93] |
Monrat A A, Schelén O, Andersson K. A survey of blockchain from the perspectives of applications, challenges, and opportunities. IEEE Access, 2019, 7: 117134-117151
|
| [94] |
Moraru I, Andersen D G, Kaminsky M. There is more consensus in egalitarian parliaments. Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles, 2013, November 3–6 2013
|
| [95] |
Nakamoto S (2008). Bitcoin: A peer-to-peer electronic cash system. Retrieved from: https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf.
|
| [96] |
Negka L, Katsika A, Spathoulas G, Plagianakos V. Blockchain state channels with compact states through the use of RSA accumulators. Blockchain: Research and Applications, 2023, 4(1): 100114
|
| [97] |
Neuder M, Moroz D J, Rao R, Parkes D C. Defending against malicious reorgs in Tezos proof-of-stake. Proceedings of the 2nd ACM Conference on Advances in Financial Technologies, 2020, Ocober 21–23, 2020
|
| [98] |
Neuder M, Moroz D J, Rao R, Parkes D C. Selfish behavior in the tezos proof-of-stake protocol. Cryptoeconomic Systems, 2020,
|
| [99] |
Nguyen C T, Hoang D T, Nguyen D N, Niyato D, Nguyen H T, Dutkiewicz E. Proof-of-stake consensus mechanisms for future blockchain networks: Fundamentals, applications and opportunities. IEEE Access, 2019, 7: 85727-85745
|
| [100] |
Oguntegbe K F, Di Paola N, Vona R. Communicating responsible management and the role of blockchain technology: Social media analytics for the luxury fashion supply chain. The TQM Journal, 2023, 35(2): 446-469
|
| [101] |
Ongaro D, Ousterhout J. In search of an understandable consensus algorithm. Proceedings of 2014 USENIX Annual Technical Conference, 2014, June 19–20, 2014
|
| [102] |
Pasdar A, Lee Y C, Dong Z. Connect API with blockchain: A survey on blockchain oracle implementation. ACM Computing Surveys, 2023, 55(10): 1-39
|
| [103] |
Paulovics Á. Innovation management in the textile industry: Potential of Web3 technologies in the fashion industry, 2023,
|
| [104] |
Salimitari M, Chatterjee M, Fallah Y P. A survey on consensus methods in blockchain for resource-constrained IoT networks. Internet of Things, 2020, 11: 100212
|
| [105] |
Ramasamy V, Padmapriya S, Kavitha G, Lekha D. A centralized blockchain architecture with optimum sharing. 2023 8th International Conference on Communication and Electronics Systems (ICCES), 2023, June 1–3, 2023
|
| [106] |
Rani R, Mahato D P. Survey on wait-free consensus protocol in distributed systems. International Journal of Communication Networks and Distributed Systems, 2023, 29(2): 166-208
|
| [107] |
Rani P, Sachan R K, Kukreja S. A systematic study on blockchain technology in education: Initiatives, products, applications, benefits, challenges and research direction. Computing, 2023, 106(2): 405-447
|
| [108] |
Rasool S, Iqbal M, Dagiuklas T, Ul-Qayyum Z, Li S. Reliable data analysis through blockchain based crowd-sourcing in mobile ad-hoc cloud. Mobile Networks and Applications, 2020, 25(1): 153-163
|
| [109] |
Sarbajna R, Eick C F, Laszka A. PhobosBC: A blockchain-based crowdsourced post-disaster mapping system and its agent-based simulation. Proceedings of the 6th ACM SIGSPATIAL International Workshop on GeoSpatial Simulation, 2023, November 13, 2023
|
| [110] |
Rossello R (2024). Blockholders and strategic voting in DAOs’ governance. SSRN: 4706759.
|
| [111] |
Roy S, Shyamasundar R K. An analysis of hybrid consensus in blockchain protocols for correctness and progress. 2023 IFIP Annual Conference on Data and Applications Security and Privacy, 2023, July 19–21, 2023
|
| [112] |
Rustemi A, Dalipi F, Atanasovski V, Risteski A. A systematic literature review on blockchain-based systems for academic certificate verification. IEEE Access, 2023, 11: 64679-64696
|
| [113] |
Saadati Z, Zeki C P, Vatankhah Barenji R. On the development of blockchain-based learning management system as a metacognitive tool to support self-regulation learning in online higher education. Interactive Learning Environments, 2023, 31(5): 3148-3171
|
| [114] |
Sahoo S S, Chaurasiya V K. Proof of location-based delivery system using multi-party virtual state channel: A blockchain model. The Journal of Supercomputing, 2024, 80(1): 703-733
|
| [115] |
Samuel O, Javaid N, Awais M, Ahmed Z, Imran M, Guizani M. Ablockchain model for fair data sharing in deregulated smart grids. 2019 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM), 2019, Decemember 9–13, 2019
|
| [116] |
Sasikumar A, Ravi L, Kotecha K, Abraham A, Devarajan M, Vairavasundaram S. A secure big data storage framework based on blockchain consensus mechanism with flexible finality. IEEE Access, 2023, 11: 56712-56725
|
| [117] |
Sankar L S, Sindhu M, Sethumadhavan M. Survey of consensus protocols on blockchain applications. Proceedings of 4th International Conference on Advanced Computing and Communication Systems (ICACCS), 2017, January 06–07, 2017
|
| [118] |
Schwartz D, Youngs N, Britto A. The ripple protocol consensus algorithm. Ripple Labs Inc White Paper, 2014, 5(8): 151
|
| [119] |
Singh S, Shampa C. Implementation of proof-of-work using Ganache. 2022 IEEE Conference on Interdisciplinary Approaches in Technology and Management for Social Innovation (IATMSI), 2022, December 21–23, 2022
|
| [120] |
Stiehle F, Weber I. Process channels: A new layer for process enactment based on blockchain state channels. International Conference on Business Process Management, 2023, September 11–15, 2023
|
| [121] |
Swan M. Blockchain thinking: The brain as a decentralized autonomous corporation. IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, 2015, 34(4): 41-52
|
| [122] |
Tan L, Xiao H, Shang X, Wang Y, Ding F, Li W. A blockchain-based trusted service mechanism for crowd-sourcing system. 2020 IEEE 91st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2020-Spring), 2020, May 25–28, 2020
|
| [123] |
Tasatanattakool P, Techapanupreeda C. Blockchain: Challenges and applications. 2018 International Conference on Information Networking (ICOIN), 2018, January 10–12, 2018
|
| [124] |
Tripathi G, Tripathi Nautiyal V, Ahad M A, Feroz N. Blockchain technology and fashion industry-opportunities and challenges. Intelligent Systems Reference Library, 2021, 203: 201-220
|
| [125] |
Tschorsch F, Scheuermann B. Bitcoin and beyond: A technical survey on decentralized digital currencies. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 2016, 18(3): 20842123
|
| [126] |
Venkatesan K, Rahayu S B. Blockchain security enhancement: An approach towards hybrid consensus algorithms and machine learning techniques. Scientific Reports, 2024, 14(1): 1149
|
| [127] |
Vyas K, Deshmukh A. A survey paper on blockchain technology and consensus algorithms. 2023 11th International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and Technology - Signal and Information Processing (ICETET-SIP), 2023, April 29–29, 2023
|
| [128] |
Wang W, Hoang D T, Hu P, Xiong Z, Niyato D, Wang P, Wen Y, Kim D I. A survey on consensus mechanisms and mining strategy management in blockchain networks. IEEE Access, 2019, 7: 22328-22370
|
| [129] |
Wang B, Luo W, Zhang A, Tian Z, Li Z. Blockchain-enabled circular supply chain management: A system architecture for fast fashion. Computers in Industry, 2020, 123: 103324
|
| [130] |
Wang L, Su Y, Dou H, Cui J, Zheng B. Offloading model of 5G intelligent terminal based on UC-MEC and node consensus mechanism. 2023 International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP), 2023, November 2–4, 2023
|
| [131] |
Wang Y, Cai M, Jian X. Consensus model of social network group decision-making based on trust relationship among experts and expert reliability. Journal of Systems Engineering and Electronics, 2023, 34(6): 1576-1588
|
| [132] |
Werner J. Blockchain governance – A systematic literature review. European, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern Conference on Information Systems, 2023, December 11–12, 2023
|
| [133] |
Wu Y, Song L, Liu L, Li J, Li X, Zhou L. Consensus mechanism of IoT based on blockchain technology. Shock and Vibration, 2020, 2020(1): 8846429
|
| [134] |
Xian D, Wei X. ICOE: A lightweight group-consensus-based off-chain execution model for smart contract-based industrial applications. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 2024, 20(2): 1895-1906
|
| [135] |
Xie M, Liu J, Chen S, Lin M. A survey on blockchain consensus mechanism: Research overview, current advances and future directions. International Journal of Intelligent Computing and Cybernetics. 16(2): 314–340.
|
| [136] |
Xie T, Gai K, Zhu L, Guo Y, Choo K K R. Cross-chain-based trustworthy node identity governance in internet of things. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 2023, 10(24): 21580-21594
|
| [137] |
Xu J, Perez D, Feng Y, Livshits B (2023). Auto.gov: Learning-based on-chain governance for decentralized finance (defi). arXiv:2302.09551.
|
| [138] |
Yang L, Jiang R, Pu X, Wang C, Yang Y, Wang M, Zhang L, Tian F. An access control model based on blockchain master-sidechain collaboration. Cluster computing, 2023, 27(1): 477-497
|
| [139] |
Yu B, Zhao H, Zhou T, Sheng N, Li X, Xu J. Over-Shard: Scaling blockchain by full sharding with over lapping network and virtual accounts. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 2023, 220: 103748
|
| [140] |
Yu D, Wang Q. Sequential hybrid consensus filtering with transmission delays and failures. Journal of the Franklin Institute, 2024, 361(8): 106841
|
| [141] |
Zhang C, Wu C, Wang X. Overview of blockchain consensus mechanism. Proceedings of the 2020 2nd International Conference on Big Data Engineering, 2020, May 29 - 31, 2020
|
| [142] |
Zhang P Y, Guo W F, Liu Z J, Zhou M, Huang B, Sedraoui K. Optimized blockchain sharding modelbased on node trust and allocation. IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management, 2023, 20(3): 2804-2816
|
| [143] |
Zhang T, Li B, Zhu Y, Han T, Wu Q. Covert channels in blockchain and blockchain-based covert communication: Overview, state-of-the-art, and future directions. Computer Communications, 2023, 205: 136-146
|
| [144] |
Zhao M, Liu W, Saif A N M, Wang B, Rupa R A, Islam K M A, Rahman S M, Hafiz N, et al. . Blockchain in online learning: A systematic review and bibliographic visualization. Sustainability, 2023, 15(2): 1470
|
| [145] |
Zheng Q, Liu X, Wang W, Wu Q, Deveci M, Pamucar D. The integrated prospect theory with consensus model for risk analysis of human error factors in the clinical use of medical devices. Expert Systems with Applications, 2023, 217: 119507
|
| [146] |
Zhong W, Yang C, Liang W, Cai J, Chen L, Liao J, Xiong N. Byzantine fault-tolerant consensus algorithms: A survey. Electronics, 2023, 12(18): 3801
|
| [147] |
Zhou S, Li K, Xiao L, Cai J, Liang W, Castiglione A. A systematic review of consensus mechanisms in blockchain. Mathematics, 2023,
|
| [148] |
Zhu G, He D, An H, Luo M, Peng C. The governance technology for blockchain systems: A survey. Frontiers of Computer Science, 2023, 18(2): 182813
|
| [149] |
Zou J, Ye B, Qu L, Wang Y, Orgun M A, Li L. A proof-of trust consensus protocol for enhancing accountability in crowdsourcing services. IEEE Transactions on Services Computing, 2019, 12(3): 429445
|
RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS
Systems Engineering Society of China and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany