Beijing will host the 2022 Winter Olympics, and China strengthens research on various aspects to allow their athletes to compete successfully in winter sport. Simultaneously, Government-directed initiatives aim to increase public participation in recreational winter sport. These parallel developments allow research to advance knowledge and understanding of the physiological determinants of performance and health related to winter sport. Winter sport athletes often conduct a substantial amount of training with high volumes of low-to-moderate exercise intensity and lower volumes of high-intensity work. Moreover, much of the training occur at low ambient temperatures and winter sport athletes have high risk of developing asthma or asthma-related conditions, such as exercise-induced bronchoconstriction. The high training volumes require optimal nutrition with increased energy and dietary protein requirement to stimulate muscle protein synthesis response in the post-exercise period. Whether higher protein intake is required in the cold should be investigated. Cross-country skiing is performed mostly in Northern hemisphere with a strong cultural heritage and sporting tradition. It is expected that innovative initiatives on recruitment and training during the next few years will target to enhance performance of Chinese athletes in classical endurance-based winter sport. The innovation potential coupled with resourcing and population may be substantial with the potential for China to become a significant winter sport nation. This paper discusses the physiological aspects of endurance training and performance in winter sport highlighting areas where innovation may advance in athletic performance in cold environments. In addition, to ensure sustainable development of snow sport, a quality ski patrol and rescue system is recommended for the safety of increasing mass participation.
To measure changes in strength, power, and agility over consecutive seasons based on competition level in figure skaters.
A total of 197 competitive singles figure skaters (age range = 9–25 years old) completed combines with United States Figure Skating on two consecutive seasons between 2011 and 2018. Skaters either remained in the same competitive on-ice level or increased by one level on consecutive seasons. All athletes completed the hexagon agility test, maximal vertical jump, timed tuck jumps, push-ups, and bent knee v-ups. Repeated-measures analyses of variance separated by sex with Tukey’s post hoc were performed for each dependent variable and Cohen’s d effect sizes were calculated for all significant differences.
Female skaters who remained in the same level demonstrated improved performance on vertical jump (3.66 cm higher), timed tuck jumps (3.77 more jumps), v-ups (1.59 more v-ups), and hexagon jump (1.17 s faster). There was an interaction for female skaters who remained in the same level (P = 0.004), with senior and junior levels outperforming intermediate level skaters on the hexagon jump test. Female skaters who increased level demonstrated improved performance on the vertical jump (2.24 cm higher), hexagon jump (1.16 cm faster), and tuck jump (3.03 more jumps). Male skaters did not demonstrate any changes in performance except v-ups (2.86 more v-ups) for those who increased level.
The greatest changes were in lower level female skaters who remained in the same level, supporting the importance of participating in strength and conditioning programs earlier in skating careers to maximize athleticism before reaching the senior level, when changes in off-ice performance plateau.
To explore the influence of the oval (plateau or plain), the lane (inner or outer), and simultaneous entry (long distance or sprint) on the result and pacing strategy in speed skating men’s 1500 m.
Multi-factor analysis of variance, independent sample T test, Spearman correlation coefficient method, paired T test and other statistical methods are used to analyze the relationship and differences between the oval (plateau or plain), the lane (inner or outer), and/or simultaneous entry (long distance or sprint) and the results of the top 8 athletes of the ISU event in the 2019–2020 season.
Among the three factors of oval, lane, and simultaneous entry, only the altitude will improve the athlete’s performance of 1500 m, an increase of about 2.52% (2.65 s). Both the oval and the simultaneous entry will affect the athlete’s 1500 m pacing strategy. Athletes tend to adopt a more positive strategy when competing in plateau; the sprint athletes have a faster opening, but a slower ending.
At present, the level of speed skating in China and the world is in the highest period. Among the oval factors, the highland oval can significantly improve the athletes’ performance of 1500 m; athletes tend to adopt a more positive pacing strategy in the plateau than in the plain. In the process of preparing for the 2022 Winter Olympic Games, we can predict the competitive level of the opponent through the plateau competition results and carry out targeted preparation. Different lanes do not affect the athlete’s 1500 m performance and pacing strategy but may affect the athlete’s final lap speed. There is no obvious difference between the sprint and long-distance athletes on the performance of 1500 m, but the sprint athletes have a faster opening and a slower ending, and the long-distance athletes have a faster final lap and a smaller drop between each lap.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of pole length on performance and technique selection during a simulated skating cross-country (XC) skiing competition on snow in female XC skiers.
Nine female XC skiers and biathletes (VO2max 63.6 ± 6.2 mL/min/kg, age 22.9 ± 3.5 years, body height 1.69 ± 0.1 m and body mass 60.8 ± 4.6 kg) completed two 5-km skating time-trail with maximal effort. The athletes had a minimum 4.5 h of rest between the two races, which were performed in a random order: one with self-selected poles (89.0% ± 0.6% of body height) and one with 7.5 cm increased pole length (94.0% ± 0.5% of body height). Speed in set terrain sections was determined and the selection of sub-technique was self-reported immediately after each race based on a detailed review of the entire track.
Skiers performed on average 7.1 ± 7.1 s (P = 0.029) faster with the long poles, with this difference occurring during the first 200 m and in the uphill parts of the track, in which ~ 5% more G3 and ~ 5% fewer G2 sub-techniques were chosen (both P < 0.05). The rating of perceived exertion was 1 ± 0.9 point lower (P = 0.04) and skiing technique was perceived to be ~ 1.2 ± 1.5 points better with long poles (P = 0.038), while the physiological responses (i.e., peak and average heart rate, and blood lactate concentration) did not differ between trials.
In conclusion, poles 7.5 cm longer than self-selected ones improved performance in skating, by enhancing speed in the initial phase (first 200 m) and in the uphill section of the track. In addition, the longer poles induced more use of the G3 skating sub-technique.
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of muscle length and fatigue on maximal force, submaximal force steadiness, and electromyographic (EMG) activity of the biceps brachii.
Force and EMG responses were measured before and after a fatigue protocol consisting of maximal intermittent contractions of the elbow flexors until task failure (n = 20). The protocol was performed on two separate occasions in a randomized order. During one visit, the elbow joint was at 90° (EF90) and for the other, it was extended to 120° (EF120).
The results show a large effect size for greater force loss following fatigue at long muscle length (P = 0.067, $\eta_{p}^{2}$ = 0.166). The fatigue-based decreases in force steadiness were not different between muscle lengths (P = 0.502, $\eta_{p}^{2}$ = 0.024). Force steadiness was lower at long muscle length before and after fatigue (P < 0.01, d = 0.691). Following fatigue, muscle excitation decreased and increased during maximal and submaximal force tasks, respectively, yet there were no length-dependent EMG responses.
The novel findings show fatigue at long muscle length likely affects force loss to a greater degree than fatigue-based decreases in force steadiness. These data show lower elbow flexion force steadiness when the biceps brachii is in a lengthened position.
The primary aim of this study is to determine the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency among Asian athletes participating in indoor and outdoor sports in equatorial Singapore. Secondary aims are to examine the relationship between vitamin D status and skeletal muscle strength and performance, and bone density.
Serum 25(OH)D concentrations were determined in 95 indoor and outdoor athletes across various sports. Skeletal muscle strength and performance were assessed using the isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), drop jump test and 30 m sprint test. Bone Mineral Density (BMD) was measured using Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA).
Mean serum 25(OH)D concentrations were 28.6 ± 8.9 ng/mL among indoor, and 39.2 ± 13.2 ng/mL among outdoor sport athletes respectively (P < 0.05). More indoor sport athletes (62%) had insufficient vitamin D compared to outdoor sport athletes (30%) (P < 0.05). Outdoor sport athletes exhibited significantly greater peak force generation than indoor sport athletes (2079 ± 470 N vs. 1869 ± 546 N, P = 0.027). Other markers of muscle function were not significantly different between groups. Indoor and outdoor sport athletes did not have significantly different BMDs although none of the athletes studied presented with poor BMD. Athletes who were deficient in vitamin D had significantly lower BMD compared to athletes with sufficient vitamin D (P = 0.01).
Forty-seven percent of Singaporean athletes studied had suboptimal vitamin D status. Routine monitoring of vitamin D levels among indoor sport athletes should be in place to ensure optimal health and performance.