Performance in cycling is frequently related to metabolic or biomechanical factors. Overall, the contribution of the neurophysiological system during cycling is often poorly considered in performance optimization. Yet, cycling is a complex whole-body physical exercise that necessitates specific coordination and fine control of motor output to manage the different intensities. The ability to produce different levels of intensity of exercise would require optimizing many functions of the central nervous system from the brain’s treatment of sensory signals to complex motor command execution via the corticospinal pathway. This review proposes an integrative approach to the factors that could influence cycling performance, based on neurophysiological and cognitive markers. First, we report data relying on brain activity signals, to account for the different brain areas and cognitive functions involved. Then, because the motor command is highly dependent upon its regulation along the corticospinal pathway, we expose the modulation of corticospinal and spinal excitabilities during cycling. We present these later by reviewing the literature of studies using transcranial magnetic or percutaneous nerve stimulations. Finally, we describe a model of neural and cognitive adjustments that occur with acute and chronic cycling practices, with several areas of improvement focusing on these factors, including mental and cognitive training.
This study examined the effects of tournament load on neuromuscular function, perceived wellness and coach ratings of performance across two 6-day netball tournaments.
Thirty-nine female youth netballers (age = 14.6 ± 0.5 years, stature = 165.9 ± 4.7 cm, body mass = 56.5 ± 7.2 kg) were categorised as HIGH (10–11 matches, n = 20) or LOW (6 matches, n = 19) tournament load. Match load, jump height, perceived wellness and coach ratings of performance were monitored daily.
HIGH tournament load resulted in greater reductions in jump height on match-day 4 (–8.3%, ± 5.6%) when compared to LOW. HIGH tournament load resulted in greater reductions in perceived soreness (–0.9, ± 1.1 AU) and overall wellness (–2.6, ± 2.3 AU) on match-day 3, and a greater reduction in perceived sleep (–0.9, ± 1.1 AU) on match-day 4. HIGH tournament load was negatively associated with sleep quality and coach ratings of performance (effect size correlation = -0.34 to -0.47) when compared to LOW.
Our results indicate that a higher tournament load resulted in greater increases in neuromuscular fatigue, reduced perceived wellness, and lower ratings of performance. Practitioners should consider pre-tournament preparation and monitoring strategies to minimise the physiological disturbances during an intensified tournament.
To compare anthropometric and physical performance profiles of Japanese 11th and 12th grade American football players within each positional group.
Fifty-two 11th and 12th grade American football players from two Japanese high schools participated in the study during the summer pre-season period. They performed anthropometric (height and body mass) and physical (vertical jump, broad jump, 40-yard dash, pro-agility shuttle 4-kg medicine ball chest throw, front throw, and back throw) testing. Vertical jump momentum and 10-yard sprint momentum were also calculated by multiplying the velocity and body mass. Athletes were divided into two groups by playing positions: skill players and linemen.
Skill players in the 12th grade were better at medicine ball chest throw (d = 0.73, P = 0.04) and vertical jump momentum (d = 0.75, P = 0.03) than those in the 11th grade. However, there were no differences in any measurements (P > 0.05) between linemen from the two grades.
The current study suggests that upper and lower body absolute power and momentum production can be improved for skill players even over 17 years old. On the other hand, body size and speed, attributes that did not change between 11th and 12th grades, seem to be essential talent identification criteria in the current environment. Further study is needed to monitor longitudinal performance improvements in implementing talent development programs by focusing on the quality of speed, agility and power development at the youth level.
The transition into full-time training represents a key period in the development of young soccer players. Here we compared the weekly training loads (matches, field-, and resistance-training) of English Premier-League Academy soccer players from under-16 (U16), under-18 (U18) and under-23 (U23) age-groups during a training meso-cycle.
Forty players (U16 n = 13, U18 n = 15 and U23 n = 12) were monitored using global navigation satellite systems and differential ratings of perceived exertion (dRPE). External load metrics were total distance, high-speed running distance, [absolute: ≥ 19.8 km/h, relative: ≥ 87% of 30–15 final-velocity (vIFT)], sprint distance (absolute: ≥ 25.2 km/h, relative: ≥ 80% maximal sprint speed), and dynamic stress load. Internal load metrics were dRPE training loads.
Other than relative sprint distance, overall weekly external training loads were substantially greater for U18s and U23s when compared with U16s [effect size range: 1.09–1.99 (moderate to large); ± 90% confidence limits ~ 0.45]. When compared with U16s, overall internal loads were substantially greater for U18s [0.69–0.95 (moderate); ± ~ 0.40], but not U23s. Differences in weekly training loads between U18s and U23s were inconclusive.
Substantial differences in training loads between elite U16 players and their older counterparts, indicates the need for planned increases in training loads in anticipation of the transition into full-time training.
This study aimed to determine the net energy expenditure (EENET) required for overground walking and running 1200 m in a sample of healthy adolescent boys and girls. A secondary purpose was to describe the effect of body composition on energy expenditure (EE) of walking versus running. Twenty healthy adolescents (9 boys, 11 girls) aged 15.85 ± 2.80 years performed 2 field tests in regular outdoor conditions: overground walking (1.64 ± 0.17 m/s) and submaximal running (3.13 ± 0.42 m/s), at a self-selected steady pace. EE was measured via indirect calorimetry. Paired sample t-tests were used to determine if there were differences between walking and running conditions and mean percentage differences were estimated for various physiological parameters. Differences in EENET between conditions were performed for both genders using a two (condition) by two (gender) analysis of variance repeated measures design, with fat free mass as a covariate. Speed increased by 90.43% between the 2 conditions, while the different components of EE increased by almost 20%. Running elicited a significantly greater EENET than walking for both genders; however, boys’ and girls’ EE did not differ significantly. When EENET was adjusted for fat free mass, there was a statistically significant condition × fat free mass effect. The findings in this study indicate that both adolescent boys and girls expend more energy during running than walking, without being affected by body composition. Body mass and fat free mass significantly correlated with EE only during running. In addition, the trained participants of the study optimized locomotion to minimize EE.
We quantified the chronological age and performance of Paralympic powerlifters competing at the elite level in the World Championships (WC) and Paralympic Games (PG), and examined the age-related differences between sexes, weight categories, and competition achievements.
This was a retrospective study involving 3107 athletes who took part in the last eight WC and six PG. Para powerlifters were divided by sex, chronological age, weight category, and competition achievement.
Overall, males were older (33 years) and stronger (lifting 168 kg) than female (32 years and lifting 96 kg, respectively) para powerlifters (P < 0.05). Male and female para powerlifters lifted heavier loads in the PG (174 and 103 kg, respectively) than in WC (163 and 93 kg, respectively) and medallists were younger (31 and 30 years for females and males, respectively) than non-medallists (33 and 32 years for females and males, respectively) (P < 0.05). Para powerlifters competing in lighter categories were younger when compared to heavier categories (P < 0.05), but their relative load was heavier compared to heavier competitors (P < 0.05).
Our results show that medallists were younger (31 and 30 years) than non-medallists (33 and 32 years) for females and males, respectively.
The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of 4 weeks of strength training with beta-alanine supplementation on anaerobic power and carnosine level in boxer players.
Eighteen male boxer players participated in this study, randomly divided into two homogeneous groups (strength training + beta-alanine and strength training + placebo groups). The study design was double-blind, parallel, and placebo-controlled. An anaerobic Wingate test was performed by athletes before and after the intervention period (4 weeks). Participants received 0.3 g/kg of body mass of the supplement (maltodextrin or beta-alanine) per day during the intervention. Participants were also evaluated for anaerobic power, serum level of carnosine, and blood lactate before and after 4 weeks.
Average power in both groups was significantly increased compared with pre-intervention, but fatigue index was significantly decreased only after beta-alanine supplementation; however, there were no significant differences with either average power or fatigue index between the beta-alanine and placebo groups. There was no significant difference in the interaction between the groups and time, as well as no significant difference between groups for lactic acid. Carnosine level in both groups was significantly increased compared with pre-intervention. When changes in serum carnosine for the two groups were examined, statistical analysis showed a significant difference between the beta-alanine and placebo groups.
Four weeks of strength training accompanied by beta-alanine supplementation had a likely beneficial effect on boxer players' anaerobic performance and carnosine level.
The aim was to explore five established SNPs (rs1815739, rs1805086, rs2700352, rs28497577, and rs28357094) that are known to modulate skeletal muscle protein kinetics in response to creatine supplementation.
A randomized, placebo-controlled, repeated measures design was used. Participants (n = 152) were randomized divided into one of two groups: CREA (20 g/day creatine monohydrate) or PLAC: (dextrose) for 7 days. SNP were assessed, and participants were classified accordingly. Before and after supplementation, anthropometrics (height and body mass) and performance measures (vertical jump, countermovement vertical jump, squat jump, abdominal crunches, and maximum push-ups) were assessed.
CREA gained more body mass than PLAC (CREA: ∆0.864 ± 0.06 kg; PLAC: ∆0.154 ± 0.07 kg, P < 0.001). In the CREA group, the presence of an A allele for the MYLK1 polymorphism was related to changes in countermovement jump height (P = 0.027; effect size [d] = 0.41) and leg power (P = 0.040, effect size [d] = 0.18). The total number of abdominal crunches after supplementation was influenced by treatments and SPP1 gene (P = 0.041). A higher number of abdominal crunches was associated with the G allele in the CREA group and the TT genotype in the PLAC group (effect size [d] = 0.04).
Collectively, short-term creatine supplementation increased body mass but was unable to alter muscle performance. However, following creatine supplementation, participants expressing A alleles in the MYLK1 polymorphism had a greater increase in jump height and leg power and participants expressing G alleles in the SPP1 gene had greater improvements in abdominal crunch performance.
The constant work-rate to exhaustion tests must be repeated several times at each work-rate to estimate subject-level trial-to-trial variance (intra-individual variability, IIV) of critical power (CP) and work capacity (W'). Alternatively, these parameters and their variance can be estimated by repeating the 3-min all-out test (3MT) fewer times. The purpose of this study was to propose a method to determine subject-level repeatability of the 3MT and demonstrate the need to repeat the test multiple times to estimate IIV.
Seven cyclists performed a ramp test and four 3MTs on a CompuTrainer. The parameters CP, W', peak power (Pp), and total work (TW) were compared across trials using repeated measures ANOVA, Bland–Altman analysis, Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), Typical Error (TE) of measurement, and Coefficient of Variation (CV).
For the group, average CP and W' were 284 ± 58 W and 10.214 ± 3.143 kJ. The reliability statistics, CP (ICC = 0.97, TE = 8 W, CV = 2.94%) and W' (ICC = 0.88, TE = 1.11 kJ, CV = 10.87%), indicated strong agreement. Subject-level repeatability was determined by comparing time-to-peak power (TPp), absolute difference in Pp (δPp), and TW (δTW) for pairs of 3MTs. The average IIVs estimated by the 95% confidence intervals were ± 15 W for CP and ± 1.68 kJ for W'.
Thresholds are proposed for TPp (7 s), δPp (10%), and δTW (3%) to determine subject-level repeatability of the 3MT before computing the IIV of CP and W'. It is suggested that the 3MT is repeated at least three times to estimate the IIV, which aids in personalized measurement of training improvements and performance optimization.
This experiment was designed to accommodate the diversified verbal, mathematical, and spatial skills of young adults, which have not yet to be collectively evaluated in research projects focused on acute exercise and creativity among college students. While emerging research suggests that acute moderate-intensity exercise may influence human creativity, creativity during and after exercise has not been experimentally investigated. Such differences are plausible, as previous work demonstrates that memory can be differentially influenced based on whether the memory task occurs during or after exercise. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of acute moderate‐intensity treadmill walking, for 15 min, on verbal, mathematical, and spatial insight creativity performance while considering the timing of the exercise and creativity tasks. Among a sample of 20 undergraduate students, all completed three randomized laboratory visits in this within-subjects design: control condition, insight problem-solving following exercise, and insight problem-solving during exercise. They also completed six insight creativity tasks (two verbal, two mathematical, and two spatial tasks) per visit, with the order of task-presentation randomized and counterbalanced across the three visits. Average insight creativity scores were similar across the three exercise manipulations: That is, verbal insight [F(2, 18) = 0.689, P = 0.51], mathematical insight [F(2, 18) = 0.033, P = 0.97], and spatial insight [F(2, 18) = 1.0, P = 0.38] performance were not statistically significant across the three visits. Thus, moderate-intensity acute exercise may not appreciably influence verbal, mathematical or spatial insight creativity.