Assessment of water quality and safety based on multi-statistical analyses of nutrients, biochemical indexes and heavy metals

Abstract

The purpose of this research was to better understand the water quality status of the Xiangjiang River, China, and to evaluate the risks posed by the river water. Precisely, ten water quality parameters including pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), Escherichia coli (E. coli), potassium permanganate index (COD_Mn), dichromate oxidizability (COD_cr), five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD₅), ammonia nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N), total phosphorus (TP) and fluoride (F⁻) as well as metal(loid)s (Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Zn, Cu and Se) were monitored monthly in 2016 at 12 sampling sites throughout the Hengyang section of the Xiangjiang River. Concentrations of all parameters were presented according to rainy and dry seasons. They were compared with Chinese surface water standards and WHO drinking water limits to assess the sustainability of the river water status. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed different pollution sources in different seasons. Dual hierarchical cluster analysis (DHCA) was applied to further classify the water quality variables and sampling sites. Besides, a risk assessment was introduced to evaluate the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic concerns of heavy metal(loid)s to human health. This research will help to optimize water monitoring locations and establish pollution reduction strategies on the preservation of public safety.

Keywords

surface water / water quality / human health risk / the Xiangjiang River

References

[1] ChaiL-y, WangZ-x, WangY-y, YangZ-h, WangH-y, WuX. Ingestion risks of metals in groundwater based on TIN model and dose-response assessment-A case study in the Xiangjiang watershed, central-south China [J]. Science of the Total Environment, 2010, 408(16): 3118-3124

[2] WangZ-x, ChaiL-y, WangY-y, YangZ-h, WangH-y, WuX. Potential health risk of arsenic and cadmium in groundwater near Xiangjiang River, China: A case study for risk assessment and management of toxic substances [J]. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 2011, 175(1–4): 167-173

[3] ChaiL-y, LiH, YangZ-h, MinX-b, LiaoQ, LiuY, MenS-h, YanY-n, XuJ-x. Heavy metals and metalloids in the surface sediments of the Xiangjiang River, Hunan, China: Distribution, contamination, and ecological risk assessment [J]. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2017, 24(1): 874-885

[4] Mas-PlaJ, MencióA. Groundwater nitrate pollution and climate change: learnings from a water balance-based analysis of several aquifers in a western Mediterranean region (Catalonia) [J]. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2018, 1: 2184-2202

[5] AdhikariA, HansenA J. Climate and water balance change among public, private, and tribal lands within greater wild land ecosystems across north central USA [J]. Climatic Change, 2019, 1: 551-567

[6] NellemannC, HainS, AlderJIn dead water: merging of climate change with pollution, over-harvest, and infestations in the world’s fishing grounds [M], 2008, Arendal, United Nations Environment Programme

[7] KibriaG. World rivers in crisis: Water quality and water dependent biodiversity are at risk-threats of pollution, climate change & dams development [J]. Research Gate, 2015, 1: 1-11

[8] FunariE, ManganelliM, SinisiL. Impact of climate change on waterborne diseases [J]. Annali dell’Istituto Superiore di Sanita, 2012, 48(4): 473-487

[9] SHEAHAN D. Impacts of climate change on pollution [EB/OL]. [2006] http://www.mccip.org.uk/media/1399/pollution-report-from-cefas.pdf.

[10] AlamM J, DuttaD. Predicting climate change impact on nutrient pollution in waterways: A case study in the upper catchment of the Latrobe River, Australia [J]. Ecohydrology, 2013, 6(1): 73-82

[11] LinH-j, ChenL-l, LiH-p, LuoZ-f, LuJ, YangZ-g. Pharmaceutically active compounds in the Xiangjiang River, China: Distribution pattern, source apportionment, and risk assessment [J]. Science of the Total Environment, 2018, 1: 975-984

[12] WuY-p, LiuS-g, YanW-d, XiaJ-z, XiangW-h, WangK-l, LuoQ, FuW, YuanW-p. Climate change and consequences on the water cycle in the humid Xiangjiang River Basin, China [J]. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 2016, 30(1): 225-235

[13] SivakumarB. Global climate change and its impacts on water resources planning and management: assessment and challenges [J]. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, 2011, 25(4): 583-600

[14] CaiB-m, ZhangB, BiJ, ZhangW-j. Energy’s thirst for water in china [J]. Environmental Science and Technology, 2014, 48(20): 11760-11768

[15] TangJ-w, ChaiL-y, LiH, YangZ-h, YangW-c. A 10-year statistical analysis of heavy metals in river and sediment in Hengyang segment, Xiangjiang river basin, China [J]. Sustainability, 2018, 10(4): 1057

[16] FeiJ-c, MinX-b, WangZ-x, PangZ-h, LiangY-j, KeY. Health and ecological risk assessment of heavy metals pollution in an antimony mining region: A case study from South China [J]. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2017, 243527573-27586

[17] TangJ-w, LiaoY-p, YangZ-h, ChaiL-y, YangW-c. Characterization of arsenic serious-contaminated soils from Shimen realgar mine area, the Asian largest realgar deposit in China [J]. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 2016, 16(5): 1519-1528

[18] WangZ-x, ChenJ-q, ChaiL-y, YangZ-h, HuangS-h, ZhengY. Environmental impact and site-specific human health risks of chromium in the vicinity of a ferro-alloy manufactory, China [J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2011, 190(1–3): 980-985

[19] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of China2016 Report on the State of the Environment in China [R], 2017, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[20] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaThe water pollution prevention and control plan for major River Basins (2016–2020) [R], 2017, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[21] ZhangL, QinY-w, ZhengB-h, LinT, LiY-y. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the sediments of Xiangjiang River in south-central China: occurrence and sources [J]. Environmental Earth Sciences, 2013, 69(1): 119-125

[22] LI Z. “No.1 Key Project” Controlling Xiangjiang pollution [EB/OL]. [2016]. http://politics.gmw.cn/2016-04/26/content_19860306.htm.

[23] ZengX-x, LiuY-g, YouS-h, ZengG-m, TanX-f, HuX-j, XiH, HuangL, LiF. Spatial distribution, health risk assessment and statistical source identification of the trace elements in surface water from the Xiangjiang River, China [J]. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2015, 22(12): 9400-9412

[24] ZengG M, YuanX Z, YinY Y, YangC P. A two-dimensional water-quality model for a winding and topographically complicated river [J]. Journal of Environmental Management, 2001, 61(1): 113-121

[25] WuY-q, ShaoD-g, XiaoY. A comprehensive benefit evaluation for the Xiangjiang River basin rehabilitation project [C]. Proceedings of the International Association of Hydrological Sciences and the International Water Resources Association Conference, 2008, Guangzhou, China, International Association of Hydrological Science, 810

[26] National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of ChinaStandard examination method for drinking water-collection and preservation of water samples (GB/T 5750.2-2006) [R], 2006, Beijing, NHC(in Chinese)

[27] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of total arsenic-silver diethyldithiocarbamate spectrophotometric method (GB/T7485-1987) [R], 1987, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[28] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of copper, zinc, lead and cadmium-atomic absorption spectrometry (GB/T 7475-1987) [R], 1987, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[29] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of total mercury-cold atomic absorption spectrophotometry (HJ597-2011) [R], 2011, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[30] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of 65 elements-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (HJ700-2014) [R], 2014, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[31] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of Ph value-glass electrode method (GB/T 6920-1986) [R], 1986(in Chinese)

[32] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of dissolved oxygen-electrochemical probe method (HJ 506–2009) [R], 2009, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[33] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of permanganate index (GB/T 11892-1989) [R], 1989, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[34] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of chemical oxygen demand-dichromate method (GB/T 11914-1989) [R], 1989, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[35] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of biochemical oxygen demand after 5 days-dilution and seeding method (HJ 505–2009) [R], 2009, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[36] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of ammonia nitrogen-salicylic acid spectrophotometry (HJ 536–2009) [R], 2009, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[37] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-determination of total phosphorus-ammonium molybdate spectrophotometric method (GB/T 11893-1989) [R], 1989, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[38] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater quality-Determination of inorganic anions-Ion chromatography method (HJ/T84-2001) [R], 2001, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[39] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaWater and wastewater monitoring and analysis method [R], 2002Fourth editionBeijing, China Environmental Science Press(in Chinese)

[40] BengraïneK, MarhabaT F. Using principal component analysis to monitor spatial and temporal changes in water quality [J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2003, 100(1–3): 179-195

[41] WuJ-h, LiP-y, QianH, DuanZ, ZhangX-d. Using correlation and multivariate statistical analysis to identify hydrogeochemical processes affecting the major ion chemistry of waters: Case study in Laoheba phosphorite mine in Sichuan, China [J]. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 2014, 7(10): 3973-3982

[42] WU Jian-hua, LI Pei-yue, WANG Dan, REN Xiao-fei, WEI Miao-jun. Statistical and multivariate statistical techniques to trace the sources and affecting factors of groundwater pollution in a rapidly growing city on the Chinese Loess Plateau [J]. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 2019: 1–19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2019.1594156.

[43] LiP-y, TianR, LiuR. Solute geochemistry and multivariate analysis of water quality in the Guohua phosphorite mine, Guizhou province, China [J]. Exposure and Health, 2019, 11(2): 81-94

[44] TziritisE P, DattaP S, BarzegarR. Characterization and assessment of groundwater resources in a complex hydrological basin of central Greece (Kopaida basin) with the joint use of hydrogeochemical analysis, multivariate statistics and stable isotopes [J]. Aquatic Geochemistry, 2017, 23(4): 271-298

[45] BarzegarR, AsghariM A, AdamowskiJ, HosseinA. Assessing the potential origins and human health risks of trace elements in groundwater: A case study in the Khoy plain, Iran [J]. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2019, 1: 981-2001

[46] BarzegarR, AsghariM A, SoltaniS, FijaniE, TziritisE, KazemianN. Heavy metal(loid)s in the groundwater of Shabestar Area (NW Iran): Source identification and health risk assessment [J]. Exposure and Health, 2019, 1: 251-265

[47] SimeonovV, StratisJ A, SamaraC, ZachariadisG, VoutsaD, AnthemidisA, SofoniouM, KouimtzzisT. Assessment of the surface water quality in Northern Greece [J]. Water Research, 2003, 37(17): 4119-4124

[48] ZhangQ, LiZ-w, ZengG-m, LiJ-b, YuanQ-s, WangY-m, YeF-y. Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques in red soil hilly region: a case study of Xiangjiang watershed, China [J]. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 2009, 152(1–4): 123-131

[49] SinghK P, MalikA, MohanD, SinhaS. Multivariate statistical techniques for the evaluation of spatial and temporal variations in water quality of Gomti River (India)—A case study [J]. Water Research, 2004, 38(18): 3980-3992

[50] LiS-y, ZhangQ-f. Risk assessment and seasonal variations of dissolved trace elements and heavy metals in the Upper Han River, China [J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2010, 181(1–3): 1051-1058

[51] LiuC-w, LinK-h, KuoY-m. Application of factor analysis in the assessment of groundwater quality in a blackfoot disease area in Taiwan [J]. Science of the Total Environment, 2003, 313(1–3): 77-89

[52] LaursenJ, MilmanN, PindN, PedersenH, MulvadG. The association between content of the elements S, Cl, K, Fe, Cu, Zn and Br in normal and cirrhotic liver tissue from Danes and Greenlandic Inuit examined by dual hierarchical clustering analysis [J]. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 2014, 28(1): 50-55

[53] RanjbarJ A, RiyahiB A, ShadmehriT A, JadotC. Spatial distribution, ecological and health risk assessment of heavy metals in marine surface sediments and coastal seawaters of fringing coral reefs of the Persian Gulf, Iran [J]. Chemosphere, 2017, 1: 1090-1111

[54] WuB, ZhaoD Y, JiaH Y, ZhangY, ZhangX X, ChengS P. Preliminary risk assessment of trace metal pollution in surface water from Yangtze River in Nanjing section, China [J]. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 2009, 82(4): 405-409

[55] Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People’s Republic of ChinaTechnical guidelines for risk assessment of contaminated sites (HJ25.3-2014) [R], 2014, Beijing, MEP(in Chinese)

[56] United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Risk assessment guidance for superfund (RAGS). Volume I. Human health evaluation manual (HHEM). Part E. Supplemental guidance for dermal risk assessment [EB/OL]. [2004-07]. https://www.epa.gov/risk/risk-assessment-guidance-superfund-rags-part.

[57] Rodriguez-ProteauR, GrantRKassimTA. Toxicity evaluation and human health risk assessment of surface and ground water contaminated by recycled hazardous waste materials [M]. Water pollution, 2005, Berlin, Springer

[58] OsborneP. Water pollution [J]. Utilities Law Review, 1999, 10(1): 17-19

[59] State Environment Protection Administration of ChinaEnvironment quality standard for surface water (GB3838-2002) [R], 2002, Beijing, SEPAC(in Chinese)

[60] World Health OrganizationGuidelines for drinking-water quality, 4th edition, incorporating the 1st addendum [R], 2017, Geneva, WHO

[61] GiriS, SinghA K. Risk assessment, statistical source identification and seasonal fluctuation of dissolved metals in the Subarnarekha river, India [J]. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 2014, 1: 305-314

[62] ChenY, WangL-q, LiangT, XiaoJ, LiJ, WeiH-c, LinL. Major ion and dissolved heavy metal geochemistry, distribution, and relationship in the overlying water of Dongting Lake, China [J]. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2019, 1: 1091-1104

[63] QuL-y, HuangH, XiaF, LiuY-y, DahlgrenR A, ZhangM-h, MeiK. Risk analysis of heavy metal concentration in surface waters across the rural-urban interface of the Wen-Rui Tang River, China [J]. Environmental Pollution, 2018, 1: 639-649

[64] NkwojiJ A, IgboJ K, AdeleyeA O, ObienuJ A, Tony-ObiagwuM J. Implications of bioindicators in ecological health: Study of a coastal lagoon, Lagos, Nigeria [J]. Agriculture & Biology Journal of North America, 2010, 1(4): 683-689

[65] LiH, ChaiL-y, YangZ-h, LiaoQ, LiuY, OuyangB. Seasonal and spatial contamination statuses and ecological risk of sediment cores highly contaminated by heavy metals and metalloids in the Xiangjiang River [J]. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2019, 1: 1617-1633

[66] LiH, YangJ-q, YeB, Jiangd-y. Pollution characteristics and ecological risk assessment of 11 unheeded metals in sediments of the Chinese Xiangjiang River [J]. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2019, 1: 1459-1472

[67] LiF, ZhangJ-d, JiangW, LiuC-y, ZhangZ-m, ZhangC-d, ZengG-m. Spatial health risk assessment and hierarchical risk management for mercury in soils from a typical contaminated site, China [J]. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2017, 39(4): 923-934

[68] SunG-y, LiZ-g, LiuT, ChenJ, WuT-t, FengX-b. Rare earth elements in street dust and associated health risk in a municipal industrial base of central China [J]. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 2017, 39(6): 1469-1486

[69] HE Xiao-dong, LI Pei-yue. Surface water pollution in the middle Chinese loess plateau with special focus on hexavalent chromium (Cr⁶⁺): Occurrence, sources and health risk [J]. Exposure and Health, 2020: 1–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-020-00344-x.

[70] LiP-y, FengW, XueC-y, TianR, WangS-t. Spatiotemporal variability of contaminants in lake water and their risks to human health: A case study of the Shahu lake tourist area, northwest China [J]. Exposure and Health, 2016, 1: 213-225

[71] WU Jian-hua, ZHANG Yu-xin, ZHOU Hui. Groundwater chemistry and groundwater quality index incorporating health risk weighting in Dingbian County, Ordos basin of northwest China [J]. Geochemistry, 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2020.125607.

[72] WuJ-h, ZhouH, HeS, ZhangY-x. Comprehensive understanding of groundwater quality for domestic and agricultural purposes in terms of health risks in a coal mine area of the Ordos basin, north of the Chinese Loess Plateau [J]. Environmental Earth Sciences, 2019, 1446