Growth performance and multiple ecosystem services of different oak plantation types in Central Italy

Abstract

The afforestation of marginal agricultural land has been promoted across Europe to reduce agricultural overproduction, produce high-quality timber, and enhance ecosystem services. This study investigates the long-term development of mixed oak plantations (Quercus robur L. and Q. petraea [Matt.] Liebl.) established in 1999 on former agricultural land in Central Italy using the triplet design. The system combines valuable broadleaved species with different proportions (from 0 to 33%) of the N-fixing shrub Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. The main objective was to assess, after 25 years, stand growth, candidate tree development, and ecosystem services under different intercropping treatments. Complete inventories of diameter and total height were conducted before and after thinning in 2014 and 2021. Since 2020, transmittance measurements were taken annually inside and outside the triplets. All candidate trees were monitored annually for growth, tree stability, crown development, stem quality and epicormic branches. Among the ecosystem services, natural regeneration, biodiversity, carbon storage (total volume, biomass, and carbon stocks), and truffle production (assessed separately in 2019, 2023 and 2024 in June–July and October–November) were analyzed. Long-term monitoring showed that site conditions, species composition and silvicultural interventions influenced stand development and candidate tree performance. Early and sufficiently intensive thinning improved candidate tree stability, growth, and structural attributes. Nevertheless, site fertility and climatic constraints remain key factors influencing the overall success of plantation management. Differences among the three stands indicated that higher proportions of N-fixing shrubs were associated with greater regeneration density and plant diversity. Regeneration ranged from 1.5 to 3.6 seedlings m⁻² and the Shannon diversity index from 0.58 to 1.57. Candidate tree growth and stem quality also differed among stands, with mean DBH ranging from 15.3 to 18.2 cm and the proportion of trees in the highest stem quality classes from 35 to 64%. Carbon stocks were primarily related to stand structure and site fertility, with oaks contributing the largest share of biomass. Truffle production was negligible and represented only a minor component of system multifunctionality. Overall, the observed differences among the studied stands suggest that site fertility may influence plantation development, while stands containing higher proportions of N-fixing species were associated with greater regeneration, biodiversity, and candidate tree quality, but not consistently with higher timber production. Although the lack of stand-level replication prevents the separation of treatment effects from site-specific conditions, the results highlight the potential of mixed-species plantations to promote ecosystem multifunctionality under Mediterranean conditions.

Keywords

Quercus petraea / Elaeagnus umbellate / Mixed plantations / Candidate trees / Silviculture / Multifunctionality

References

[1] Ameray A, Bergeron Y, Valeria O, Montoro Girona M, Cavard X. Forest carbon management: a review of silvicultural practices and management strategies across boreal, temperate and tropical forests. Curr for Rep, 2021, 74245266.

[2] Andrzejczyk T, Liziniewicz M, Bolibok L. Growth and quality of 16-year-old sessile oak (Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) planted in traditional and alternative row planting patterns. Forestry (Lond), 2024, 974564579.

[3] Attocchi G. Effects of pruning and stand density on the productionof new epicormic shoots in young stands of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.). Ann for Sci, 2013, 707663673.

[4] Baral H, Guariguata MR, Keenan RJ. A proposed framework for assessing ecosystem goods and services from planted forests. Ecosyst Serv, 2016, 22: 260-268.

[5] Battipaglia G, Pelleri F, Lombardi F, Altieri S, Vitone A, Conte E, Tognetti R. Effects of associating Quercus robur L. and Alnus cordata Loisel. on plantation productivity and water use efficiency. For Ecol Manag, 2017, 391: 106-114.

[6] Becquey J. A quelle densité planter les feuillus précieux? Quelques éléments de réflexion. Rev for Fr, 1992.

[7] Becquey J. Pour alléger le suivi des plantations: le mélange avec des essences secondaires. Rev for Fr, 2008, 2: 289-303.

[8] Bertini G, Amoriello T, Fabbio G, Piovosi M. Forest growth and climate change: evidences from the ICP-Forests intensive monitoring in Italy. Iforest, 2011, 46262267.

[9] Bianchetto E, Vitone A, Bidini C, Pelleri F (2013) Effetto di differenti tipologie di consociazione sull’accrescimento e sulla qualità del noce comune (Juglans regia L.) in un impianto di arboricoltura da legno nell’Italia centrale. Ann Silvic Res 37(1):38–44. https://doi.org/10.12899/asr-776

[10] Bragato G, Gardin L, Lulli L, Raglione M (2006) Tartufi eduli. In: Costantini EAC (ed) Metodi di valutazione dei suoli e delle terre, Cantagalli, Siena, p 922

[11] Braun-Blanquet J. Pflanzensoziologie: Grundzüge der Vegetationskunde, 19643rd EdViennaSpringer-Verlag865.

[12] Bravo-Oviedo A, Pretzsch H, del Río M. Dynamics, silviculture and management of mixed forests, 2018Springer International Publishing

[13] Brunori AME, Sdringola P, Dini F, Ilarioni L, Nasini L, Regni L, Proietti P, Proietti S, Vitone A, Pelleri F. Carbon balance and life cycle assessment in an oak plantation for mined area reclamation. J Clean Prod, 2017, 144: 69-78.

[14] Brym ZT, Lake JK, Allen D, Ostling A. Plant functional traits suggest novel ecological strategy for an invasive shrub in an understorey woody plant community. J Appl Ecol, 2011, 48510981106.

[15] Buresti E. Il restauro forestale delle discariche minerarie dell’ENEL - Miniera di Santa Barbara nel Valdarno. Ann Ist Sperim Selvicolt, 1984, 15: 157-216

[16] Campelo F, Rubio-Cuadrado Á, Montes F, Colangelo M, Valeriano C, Camarero JJ. Growth phenology adjusts to seasonal changes in water availability in coexisting evergreen and deciduous Mediterranean oaks. For Ecosyst, 2023, 10. 100134

[17] Chapman RA, Heitzman E, Shelton MG. Long-term changes in forest structure and species composition of an upland oak forest in Arkansas. For Ecol Manag, 2006, 23618592.

[18] Chianucci F, Cutini A. Estimation of canopy properties in deciduous forests with digital hemispherical and cover photography. Agric for Meteor, 2013, 168: 130-139.

[19] Clark JR, Hemery GE, Savill PS. Early growth and form of common walnut (Juglans regia L.) in mixture with tree and shrub nurse species in southern England. Forestry (Oxf), 2008, 815631644.

[20] Coello J, Piqué M, Beltrán M, Coll L, Palero N, Guitart L (2022) Adaptive and close-to-nature management in mixed sub-humid Mediterranean forests: holm oak, chestnut, common oak and pine woods. Forest Science and Technology Centre of Catalonia, Solsona (Lleida, Spain); Forest Ownership Centre, Santa Perpètua de Mogoda (Barcelona, Spain), p 104

[21] Corazzesi A, Tani A, Pelleri F. Effetto della consociazione e del diradamento in un impianto di arboricoltura da legno con latifoglie di pregio dopo oltre 20 anni dall’impianto. Ann CRA Centro Ric Selv, 2010, 3620103748

[22] Cudjoe E, Bravo F, Ruiz-Peinado R (2024) Allometry and biomass dynamics in temperate mixed and monospecific stands: Contrasting response of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and sessile oak (Quercus petraea L. Liebl.). Sci Total Environ 953:176061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176061

[23] Dornbos DL, Martzke MR, Gries K, Hesselink R. Physiological competitiveness of autumn olive compared with native woody competitors in open field and forest understory. For Ecol Manag, 2016, 372: 101-108.

[24] Fernández-Moya J, Urbán-Martínez I, Pelleri F, Castro G, Bergante S, Giorcelli A, Gennaro M, Licea-Moreno RJ, Santacruz Pérez D, Gutiérrez-Tejón E, Homar-Sánchez C, Bidini C, Chiarabaglio PM, Manetti MC, Plutino M, Sansone D. Silvicultural guide to managing walnut plantations for timber production, 2019, Spain: Bosques Naturales SA, 86

[25] Forrester DI. The spatial and temporal dynamics of species interactions in mixed-species forests: from pattern to process. For Ecol Manag, 2014, 312: 282-292.

[26] Forrester DI, Bauhus J, Cowie AL, Vanclay JK. Mixed-species plantations of Eucalyptus with nitrogen-fixing trees: a review. For Ecol Manag, 2006, 2332–3211230.

[27] Ganatsas P, Tsakaldimi M, Karydopoulos T, Papaemannuil A, Papadopoulos S. Long-term effect of different forest thinning intensity on carbon sequestration rates and potential uses in climate change mitigation actions. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change, 2024.

[28] Heydari M, Prévosto B, Abdi T, Mirzaei J, Mirab-balou M, Rostami N, Khosravi M, Pothier D. Establishment of oak seedlings in historically disturbed sites: regeneration success as a function of stand structure and soil characteristics. Ecol Eng, 2017, 107: 172-182.

[29] Hodge SJ (1995) Creating and managing woodland around towns. The Forestry Authority, Handbook 11, Forest Commission London HMSO, 176 pp

[30] ISPRA (2022) Italian Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990–2020 National Inventory Report 2022, 622 pp. Available at: https://www.isprambiente.gov.it/it/pubblicazioni/rapporti/italian-greenhouse-gas-inventory-1990-2020-national-inventory-report-2022

[31] Judson JB, Chapman PJ, Holden J, Galdos MV. Impacts of arable reforestation on soil carbon and nutrients are dependent upon interactions between soil depth and tree species. CATENA, 2024, 247. 108465

[32] Kerr G, Haufe J. Thinning practice. A silvicultural guide, 2011Forestry Commission

[33] Lasanta T, Arnáez J, Nadal-Romero E. Soil degradation, restoration and management in abandoned and afforested lands. Soil degradation, restoration and management in a global change context, 2019Elsevier71117.

[34] Lemaire J (2010) Le chene autrement. Produire du chêne de qualitè en moins de 100 ans en futaie reguiliere. Guide tecniche IDF, p 176

[35] Liu CLC, Kuchma O, Krutovsky KV. Mixed-species versus monocultures in plantation forestry: development, benefits, ecosystem services and perspectives for the future. Glob Ecol Conserv, 2018, 15. e00419

[36] Loewe-Muñoz V, Del Río R, Delard C, Bonomelli C, Balzarini M. Performance of Quercus rubra and Quercus robur in pure and mixed-species plantations. For Ecol Manag, 2025, 597. 123139

[37] Manetti MC, Mazza G, Papini L, Pelleri F. Effects of mixture and management on growth dynamics and responses to climate of Quercus robur L. in a restored opencast lignite mine. iForest, 2022, 155391400.

[38] Marron N, Epron D. Are mixed-tree plantations including a nitrogen-fixing species more productive than monocultures?. For Ecol Manag, 2019, 441: 242-252.

[39] Mészáros I, Adorján B, Nyitrai B, Kanalas P, Oláh V, Levanič T. Long-term radial growth and climate-growth relationships of Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl. and Quercus cerris L. in a xeric low elevation site from Hungary. Dendrochronologia, 2022, 76. 126014

[40] Mohni C, Pelleri F, Hemery GE (2009) The modern silviculture of Juglans regia L.: a literature review. Die Bodenkultur 60(3):21–34

[41] Moore MR, Buckley DS, Klingeman WE, Saxton AM. Distribution and growth of autumn olive in a managed forest landscape. For Ecol Manag, 2013, 310: 589-599.

[42] Mori P, Pelleri F, Bianchetto E, Fantoni I, Magni A, Miozzo M, Sansone D. Selvicoltura per le specie arboree sporadiche: manuale tecnico per la selvicoltura d’albero proposta nell’ambito del pogetto LIFE+ PProSpoT, 2014, Arezzo: Compagnia delle Foreste, 144

[43] Nakagawa S, Schielzeth H. A general and simple method for obtaining R² from generalized linear mixed-effects models. Meth Ecol Evol, 2013, 42133142.

[44] Navarro-Cerrillo RM, Rivas CA, Quinto L, Navarro SH, Varo-Martínez Á, Palacios-Rodríguez P. Afforestation on agricultural land in southern Spain: an important driver to improve forest landscape connectivity. New for, 2023, 54610611084.

[45] Niccoli F, Danise T, Innangi M, Pelleri F, Manetti MC, Mastrolonardo G, Certini G, Fioretto A, Battipaglia G. Tree species composition in mixed plantations influences plant growth, intrinsic water use efficiency and soil carbon stock. Forests, 2021, 1291251

[46] Nicolescu VN (2018) The practice of silviculture. Brasov Aldus, 254 pp. ISBN: 978-606-984-010-–8

[47] Nosenzo A, Boetto G, Berretti R, Travaglia PM. Applicazione dell’indice di qualità su un campione di impianti di arboricoltura da legno del Piemonte. Sherwood Foreste Ed Alberi Oggi, 2012, 183: 21-25

[48] Paquette A, Messier C. The role of plantations in managing the world’s forests in the Anthropocene. Front Ecol Environ, 2010, 812734.

[49] Pelleri F, Fiorentin R, Mezzalira G (2001) Gli imboschimenti a prioritaria finalità naturalistica dell’area AMAG di Villaverla (VI): criteri di realizzazione e modalità di gestione. Sherwood Foreste ed Alberi Oggi 65:5–10

[50] Pelleri F, Ravagni S, Buresti E. Confronto tra metodi di diradamento in un impianto puro d farnia (Quercus robur L.). Ann Silvic Res, 2009, 35: 101-114.

[51] Pignatti S, Guarino R, La Rosa M. Flora d’Italia, 2019II edBolognaEdagricole di New Business Media

[52] Pividori M, Marcolin E, Marcon A, Piccinin N. Thinning trials in lowland plantations in the Veneto Region (North-eastern Italy). Ann Silvic Res, 2015, 3914654.

[53] Pretzsch H, Schütze G. Tree species mixing can increase stand productivity, density and growth efficiency and attenuate the trade-off between density and growth throughout the whole rotation. Ann Bot, 2021, 1286767786.

[54] Pretzsch H, Hilmers T. Structural diversity and carbon stock of forest stands: tradeoff as modified by silvicultural thinning. Eur J for Res, 2025, 1444775796.

[55] Ravagni S, Bidini C, Bianchetto E, Vitone A, Pelleri F. Cultivation techniques in a 34 years old farming oak (Quercus robur L.) plantation in the Arno valley (Tuscany). Ann Silvic Res, 2015, 392111117.

[56] Schutz JP. High-quality oak silviculture in Switzerland - concepts of education and production in the marginal range of European oak. Ann Sci for, 1993, 506553562.

[57] Simard S (2021) Finding the mother trees: discovering the wisdom of the forest. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 9780525656104

[58] Stark C. Control of Elaeagnus umbellata (autumn olive). Restor Reclam Rev, 2000, 636

[59] Sui MY, Qin X, Sun N, Liu YB, Yang C, Guan LF, Zhang YW, Wang HY, Zhang MM, Mao YF, Shen X. Effect of Elaeagnus angustifolia Linn. on the physicochemical properties and microbial community structure of inter-rhizosphere soils. Plants (Basel), 2025, 1481242

[60] Tabacchi G, Di Cosmo L, Gasparini P, Morelli S. Stima del volume e della fitomassa delle principali specie forestali italiane: equazioni di previsione, tavole del volume e tavole della fitomassa arborea epigea, 2011, Trento: Consiglio per la Ricerca e la sperimentazione in Agricoltura, Unità di Ricerca per il Monitoraggio e la Pianificazione Forestale

[61] Testaferri G, Bianchetto E, Bidini C, Terradura M, Pelleri F. Comparison among different schemes and plant densities in oak plantations (Quercus petraea [Matt.] Liebel.): a case study in Umbria, Central Italy. Forest@, 2019, 1644047.

[62] Vacek Z, Vacek S, Cukor J. European forests under global climate change: review of tree growth processes, crises and management strategies. J Environ Manag, 2023, 332. 117353

[63] Wagner S, Huth F, Mohren GMJ, Herrmann I (2013) Silvicultural systems and multiple service forestry. In: Kraus S, Krumm F (eds) Integrative approaches as an opportunity for the conservation of forest biodiversity, pp 64–73. http://www.efi.int/files/attachments/publications/integrate_2013.pdf#page=63

[64] Wilhelm GJ, Rieger H. Stratégie QD: une gestion de la forêt basée sur la qualité et les cycles naturels, 2017CNPF-IDF

Rights & permissions

The Author(s)