The gradient response of Casuarina equisetifolia shelterbelts to super-strong typhoons in southeast China

Abstract

Tropical cyclones routinely cause catastrophic damage to coastal forest ecosystems. However, critical knowledge gaps persist regarding intra-typhoon spatial dynamics—particularly how damage gradients vary with proximity to both storm eyes and shorelines within individual typhoon events. This hinders mechanistic understanding of windthrow patterns essential for developing targeted coastal resilience strategies. This study pioneers a systematic investigation into the spatial vulnerability patterns of Casuarina equisetifolia coastal shelterbelts through novel dual-distance analysis from typhoon epicenters and coastlines. Our research involved examining the damage patterns and extent inflicted by super-strong Typhoon No. 5 “Doksuri” in 2023 on trees at the typhoon’s center and its sub-center. The results of this study were obtained through function fitting and ANOVA, mainly by dividing different gradients and investigating the condition of damaged trees. (1) Damage to C. equisetifolia was more severe in the typhoon’s sub-center than in the center, and it intensified with increasing distance from the coast; (2) The number of severely damaged trees and the total number of damaged trees under different gradients at both locations generally increased and then decreased with the increase in diameter class; (3) Gradient-dependent divergence emerged in severe damage (stem failure/uprooting), whereas no significant gradient-related differences were observed for minor damage. By establishing quantitative relationships between wind damage gradients and these critical geographical parameters, we aim to develop climate-resilient management strategies that address the escalating threats of intensified typhoons under climate change.

Keywords

Coastal shelter forest / Typhoon / Doksuri / Casuarina equisetifolia

References

[1] Cazzolla Gatti R, Vaglio Laurin G, Valentini R. Tree species diversity of three Ghanaian reserves. Iforest. 2017, 10(2): 362-368.

[2] Chen XY, Avtar R, Umarhadi DA, Louw AS, Shrivastava S, Yunus AP, Khedher KM, Takemi T, Shibata H. Post-typhoon forest damage estimation using multiple vegetation indices and machine learning models. Weather Clim Extrem. 2022, 38: 100494.

[3] Elsner JB, Kossin JP, Jagger TH. The increasing intensity of the strongest tropical cyclones. Nature. 2008, 455(7209): 92-95.

[4] Frangi JL, Lugo AE. Hurricane damage to a flood plain forest in the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. Biotropica. 1991, 234324.

[5] Freschet GT, Roumet C, Comas LH, Weemstra M, Bengough AG, Rewald B, Bardgett RD, De Deyn GB, Johnson D, Klimešová J, Lukac M, McCormack ML, Meier IC, Pagès L, Poorter H, Prieto I, Wurzburger N, Zadworny M, Bagniewska-Zadworna A, Blancaflor EB, Brunner I, Gessler A, Hobbie SE, Iversen CM, Mommer L, Picon-Cochard C, Postma JA, Rose L, Ryser P, Scherer-Lorenzen M, Soudzilovskaia NA, Sun T, Valverde-Barrantes OJ, Weigelt A, York LM, Stokes A. Root traits as drivers of plant and ecosystem functioning: current understanding, pitfalls and future research needs. New Phytol. 2021, 23231123-1158.

[6] Gardiner B. Wind damage to forests and trees: a review with an emphasis on planted and managed forests. J for Res. 2021, 26(4): 248-266.

[7] Gardiner BA, Stacey GR, Belcher RE, Wood CJ. Field and wind tunnel assessments of the implications of respacing and thinning for tree stability. Forestry. 1997, 70(3): 233-252.

[8] Gill AM, Tomlinson PB. Studies on the growth of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) 4. the adult root system. Biotropica. 1977, 9(3): 145.

[9] Houle G. Plant species richness and its determinants on a coastal dune system at Îles de la Madeleine, Québec (Canada). Ecoscience. 2008, 151113-120.

[10] Ibanez T, Bauman D, Aiba SI, Arsouze T, Bellingham PJ, Birkinshaw C, Birnbaum P, Curran TJ, DeWalt SJ, Dwyer J, Fourcaud T, Franklin J, Kohyama TS, Menkes C, Metcalfe DJ, Murphy H, Muscarella R, Plunkett GM, Sam C, Tanner E, Taylor BN, Thompson J, Ticktin T, Tuiwawa MV, Uriarte M, Webb EL, Zimmerman JK, Keppel G. Damage to tropical forests caused by cyclones is driven by wind speed but mediated by topographical exposure and tree characteristics. Glob Change Biol. 2024, 30(5. e17317

[11] Kauffman JB, Cole TG. Micronesian mangrove forest structure and tree responses to a severe typhoon. Wetlands. 2010, 306): 1077-1084.

[12] Li YL, Mwangi B, Zhou S, Liu SZ, Zhang QM, Liu JX, Chu GW, Tang XL, Zhang DQ, Wei SM, Lie ZY, Wu T, Wang C, Yang GF, Meng Z. Effects of typhoon mangkhut on a monsoon evergreen broad-leaved forest community in Dinghushan nature reserve, lower subtropical China. Front Ecol Evol. 2021, 9: 692155.

[13] Liao F, Su R, Chan PW, Qi YB, Hon KK. Observational study on the characteristics of the boundary layer during changes in the intensity of tropical cyclones landing in Guangdong, China. Adv Meteorol. 2019, 20198072914.

[14] Lin KC, Hamburg SP, Wang LX, Duh CT, Huang CM, Chang CT, Lin TC. Impacts of increasing typhoons on the structure and function of a subtropical forest: reflections of a changing climate. Sci Rep. 2017, 74911.

[15] Liu K, Zhu YF, Yang M, Wu M, Cheng F, Wu Y. Diameter and height class structure distribution of Parashorea chinensis Wang Hsie. plantations in different slope directions. J South Agric. 2018, 49(4): 763-767.

[16] Liu HN, Li MJ, Wang YY, Jiang CY, Li KL, Wu CZ, Chen C. Single-wood health assessment in Casuarina Protection forests at different distances from the coastline. Chin J Trop Crops. 2020, 41112322-2328.

[17] Luo GY, Song XQ, Yang DH, Zhang Z. Correlation analysis on the relationship between the biological characteristic of ten ornamental tree species and the windresistance ability in Hainan Island. Chin J Trop Crop. 2013, 34(2): 263-267

[18] Meier AR, Saunders MR, Michler CH. Epicormic buds in trees: a review of bud establishment, development and dormancy release. Tree Physiol. 2012, 32(5): 565-584.

[19] Méndez-Alonzo R, Moctezuma C, Ordoñez VR, Angeles G, Martínez AJ, López-Portillo J. Root biomechanics in Rhizophora mangle: anatomy, morphology and ecology of mangrove’s flying buttresses. Ann Bot. 2015, 115(5): 833-840.

[20] Mitchell SJ. Wind as a natural disturbance agent in forests: a synthesis. Forestry. 2013, 86(2): 147-157.

[21] Morimoto J, Aiba M, Furukawa F, Mishima Y, Yoshimura N, Nayak S, Takemi T, Chihiro H, Matsui T, Nakamura F. Risk assessment of forest disturbance by typhoons with heavy precipitation in northern Japan. For Ecol Manag. 2021, 479: 118521.

[22] Ni YL, Wang TJ, Cao HL, Li YP, Bin Y, Zhang RY, Wang Y, Lian JY, Ye WH. An old-growth subtropical evergreen broadleaved forest suffered more damage from Typhoon Mangkhut than an adjacent secondary forest. For Ecol Manag. 2021, 496119433.

[23] Papesch A, Moore J, Hawke A. Mechanical stability of Pinus radiata trees at Eyrewell Forest investigated using static tests. N Z J for Sci. 1997, 27188-204

[24] Peltola HM. Mechanical stability of trees under static loads. Am J Bot. 2006, 93(10): 1501-1511.

[25] Quebbeman AW, Menge DNL, Arellano G, Hall J, Wood TE, Zimmerman JK, Uriarte M. A severe hurricane increases carbon dioxide and methane fluxes and triples nitrous oxide emissions in a tropical forest. Ecosystems. 2022, 25(8): 1754-1766.

[26] Talkkari A, Peltola H, Kellomäki S, Strandman H. Integration of component models from the tree, stand and regional levels to assess the risk of wind damage at forest margins. For Ecol Manag. 2000, 135(1–3): 303-313.

[27] Tao SS, Hua YF, Dong S. Hazard risk assessment of tropical cyclones based on joint probability theory. Acta Oceanol Sin. 2023, 42(6): 89-99.

[28] Trabing BC, Penny AB, Martinez J, Fritz C. Are forecasts of the tropical cyclone radius of maximum wind skillful?. Geophys Res Lett. 2024, 51(12. e2024GL109663

[29] Villamayor BMR, Rollon RN, Samson MS, Albano GMG, Primavera JH. Impact of Haiyan on Philippine mangroves: implications to the fate of the widespread monospecific Rhizophora plantations against strong typhoons. Ocean Coast Manag. 2016, 132: 1-14.

[30] Wang HB, Xu X, Wang ZH, Cao R, Zheng BQ, Song SY, Jiang YR, Zhu QY, Yang WQ. Abnormal litter induced by typhoon disturbances had higher rates of mass loss and carbon release than physiological litter in coastal subtropical urban forest ecosystems. Forests. 2022, 1311): 1819.

[31] Xi WM. Forest response to natural disturbance: changes in structure and diversity on a North Carolina Piedmont forest in response to catastrophic wind events. Dissertations. 2006, 24: 296-306.

[32] Xi WM. Synergistic effects of tropical cyclones on forest ecosystems: a global synthesis. J for Res. 2015, 26118.

[33] Xi W, Peet RK. Hurricane effects on the piedmont forests: patterns and implications. Ecol Restor. 2008, 264295-298.

[34] Xi W, Peet RK, Decoster JK, Urban DL. Tree damage risk factors associated with large, infrequent wind disturbances of Carolina forests. Forestry. 2008, 81(3): 317-334.

[35] Xiang CY, Wu LG, Tian W, Liu QY. Applications of MTCSWA data to the characteristic analysis of tropical cyclone structure. Meteor Mon. 2016, 42(11): 1315-1324.

[36] Xiao QL, Huang MB. Fine root distributions of shelterbelt trees and their water sources in an oasis of arid northwestern China. J Arid Environ. 2016, 130: 30-39.

[37] Xiao FJ, Liu QF. An evaluation of vegetation loss due to the super typhoon Sarika in Hainan Island of China. Nat Hazards. 2023, 115(2): 1677-1695.

[38] Zeng Z, Xu JJ, Ye GL, Shen WQ. The influence of different intensity of monsoon on typhoon precipitation: a comparative study of typhoons Soudelor and Maria. Front Earth Sci. 2023, 11: 1251711.

[39] Zhang X, Chen GS, Cai LX, Jiao HB, Hua JW, Luo XF, Wei XL. Impact assessments of typhoon lekima on forest damages in subtropical China using machine learning methods and landsat 8 OLI imagery. Sustainability. 2021, 1394893.

[40] Zhao HK, Duan XY, Raga GB, Klotzbach PJ. Changes in characteristics of rapidly intensifying western north Pacific tropical cyclones related to climate regime shifts. J Climate. 2018, 31198163-8179.

[41] Zhu EY, Gao HY, Chen LS, Yao J, Liu T, Sha M. Interactions between coastal protection forest ecosystems and human activities: quality, service and resilience. Ocean Coast Manag. 2024, 254107190.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Northeast Forestry University