Ecology, growth and management of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), a non-native species integrated into European forests

Abstract

Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), a species native to the eastern North America, was introduced to Europe probably in 1601 and currently extends over 2.3 × 10⁶ ha. It has become naturalized in all sub-Mediterranean and temperate regions rivaling Populus spp. as the second most planted broadleaved tree species worldwide after Eucalyptus spp. This wide-spreading planting is because black locust is an important multipurpose species, producing wood, fodder, and a source of honey as well as bio-oil and biomass. It is also important for carbon sequestration, soil stabilization and re-vegetation of landfills, mining areas and wastelands, in biotherapy and landscaping. In Europe, black locust is drought tolerant so grows in areas with annual precipitation as low as 500–550 mm. It tolerates dry, nutrient poor soils but grows best on deep, nutrient-rich, well-drained soils. It is a fast-growing tree and the height, diameter and volume growth peak before the age of 20. It mostly regenerates vegetatively by root suckers under a simple coppice system, which is considered the most cost-effective management system. It also regenerates, but less frequently, by stool sprouts. Its early silviculture in production forests includes release cutting to promote root suckers rather than stool shoots, and cleaning-respacing to remove low-quality stems, reduce the number of shoots per stool, and adjust spacing between root suckers. In addition, early, moderate and frequent thinning as well as limited pruning are carried out focusing on crop trees. The species is regarded as invasive in several European countries and its range here is expected to expand under predicted climate changes.

Keywords

Black locust / Ecology / Invasiveness / Climate change / Management

References

[1] Andrašev S, Bobinac M, Rončević S (2015) Elements of growth and characteristics of the first thinning in the mixed culture of poplar and black locust on fluvisol. In: Kovačević D (ed) Proceedings of the sixth international scientific agricultural symposium “Agrosym 2015”. University of East Sarajevo, Faculty of Agriculture, Sarajevo, pp 2088–2094

[2] Anko B (1989) Forest order for Illyrian Provinces in 1810. Ljubljana: Viri za zgodovino gozda in gozdarstva na Slovenskem, vol 5, p 129 (in Slovenian)

[3] Anonymous. Regulatory and reference materials for the forest measurement in Ukraine and Moldova, 1987, Kyiv: Urozhaj 560 (in Russian)

[4] Anonymous (2017a) The final report of the research topic “Ecological, economic and management consequences of the occurrence of selected species of alien trees in Poland”, implemented by Laboratory of Dendrometry and Forest Productivity in 2013–2017, under contract of General Directorate of Polish State Forests in Warsaw. Polish State Forests, Warszawa, p 285 (in Polish)

[5] Anonymous (2017b) Report on the Forest Sector of the Slovak Republic 2016—green report. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of the Slovak Republic, Bratislava. http://www.mpsr.sk/. Accessed 5 Oct 2018

[6] Aslam AJ (2015) Stress responses of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) to drought and/or pathogen attack. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Biology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, p 143

[7] Banković S, Medarević M, Pantić D, Petrović N (2009) The National Forest Inventory of the Republic of Serbia: the growing stock of the Republic of Serbia. Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of the Republic of Serbia. Forest Directorate, Belgrade, p 238 (in Serbian)

[8] Benčať T. Black locust biomass production in Southern Slovakia, 1989, Bratislava: Acta dendrobiologica, VEDA 192

[9] Benesperi R, Giuliani C, Zanetti S, Gennai M, Mariotti Lippi M, Guidi T, Nascimbene J, Foggi B. Forest plant diversity is threatened by Robinia pseudoacacia (black-locust) invasion. Biodiv Cons, 2012, 21: 3555-3568.

[10] Berthold D, Vor T, Beese F. Nentwig W, Bacher S, Cock MJW, Dietz H, Gigon A, Wittenberg R. Soil degradation by Robinia pseudoacacia L. (Black Locust) in Hungary. Biological invasions: from ecology to control, 2005, Berlin: Neobiota 67 78

[11] Bîrlănescu E, Belu C. Bakoș V. Culture of black locust, focusing on black locust culture in Oltenia. Culture of fast growing tree species, 1968, București: Editura agrosilvică 332 346 (in Romanian)

[12] Bîrlănescu E, Clonaru A. Contributions to the influence of thinning on black locust stands. Effects of a heavy intervention. Rev păd, 1960, 12: 738-741. (in Romanian)

[13] Bîrlănescu E, Costea A (1962) Research on black locust regeneration on sandy soils in the south of Oltenia. Institutul de Cercetări Forestiere, Studii și Cercetări, XXII(C), pp 19–33 (in Romanian)

[14] Bîrlănescu E, Costea A, Stoiculescu C. A new variety of black locust identified in Romania—Robinia pseudacacia L. var oltenica Birl. Bost et Stoic Rev păd, 1966, 9: 483-486. (in Romanian)

[15] Bîrlănescu E, Diaconu M, Costea A, Cojocaru I. Research on black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) improvement. ICAS București St Cerc, 1977, 34: 41-54. (in Romanian)

[16] BMEL (2014) Forest in Germany: selected results from the 3rd National Forest Inventory. BMVEL (Bundesministerium für Verbraucherschutz, Ernährung und Landwirtschaft), Berlin, p 52 (in German)

[17] Boer E. Risk assessment Robinia pseudoacacia L, 2013, Leiden: Naturalis Biodiversity Center 18

[18] Borde B. Black locust in Bourgogne. Silviculture and management guidelines, 2011, Chalons sur Saône: Centre Régional de la Propriété Forestière de Bourgogne 19 (in French)

[19] Borde B. Developing a black locust silviculture producing sawlogs. For-ent, 2018, 241: 12-15. (in French)

[20] Boring LR, Swank WT. The role of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) in forest succession. J Ecol, 1984, 72: 749-766.

[21] Bousse M, Richard V. Valorisation and uses of black locust in Occitanie. (Midi Pyrénées Bois Report), 2017, Auzeville Tolosane: Maison de la Coopération 16 (in French)

[22] Branco M, Battisti A, Mendel Z. Paine TD, Lieutier D. Foliage feeding invasive insects: defoliators and gall makers. Insects and diseases of mediterranean forest systems, 2016, Cham: Springer 211 238

[23] Branquart E, Vanderhoeven S, Van Landuyt W, Van Rossum F, Verloove F (2007) Invasive alien species in Belgium: Robinia pseudoacacia—Black locust. https://ias.biodiversity.be/species/show/15. Accessed 20 Oct 2018

[24] Brosse J. Trees of Western Europe, 1977, Paris: Bordas éditions 239 (in French)

[25] Brus R. Dendrology for foresters, 2011, Ljubljana: Univerza v Ljubljani, Biotehniška fakulteta 408 (in Slovenian)

[26] Brus R, Ficko A, Roženbergar D, Westergren M, Jarni K (2016) Slovenia. In: Hasenauer H, Gazda A, Konnert M, Mohren G, Pötzelsberger E, Spiecker H, van Loo M (eds) Non-native tree species for European Forests: experiences, risks and opportunities. COST Action FP1403 NNEXT Country Reports, Joint Volume. University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, pp 297–304

[27] Carbonnière T, Debenne JN, Merzeau D, Rault M. Black locust in Aquitaine. For-ent, 2007, 177: 13-17. (in French)

[28] Carl C (2018) Short portrait black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.). https://www.waldwissen.net/waldwirtschaft/waldbau/wuh_robinie/index_DE. Accessed 8 Oct 2018 (in German)

[29] Čarni A, Brus R, Dakskobler I, Juvan N, Kutnar L, Marinšek A (2016) Planning and silvicultural intervention in situations of the presence of non-native invasive species. Znanstvenoraziskovalni center Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti, Ljubljana, p 151 (in Slovenian)

[30] Čavlović J (2010) First national forest inventory of Croatia. Ministarstvo regionalnog razvoja šumarstva i vodnoga gospodarstva, Šumarski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, Zagreb, p 31 (in Croatian)

[31] Cierjacks A, Kowarik I, Joshi J, Hempel S, Ristow M, von der Lippe M, Weber E. Biological Flora of the British Isles: Robinia pseudoacacia. J Ecol, 2013, 101: 1623-1640.

[32] CIRAD (2012) Black locust wood characteristics. https://tropix.cirad.fr/FichiersComplementaires/FR/Temperees/ROBINIER.pdf. Accessed 8 Oct 2018 (in French)

[33] Ciuvăț AL, Blujdea V, Abrudan IV, Nuță IS, Negruțiu F (2015) Ecosystem services provided by black locust (Robinia pseudacacia L.) plantations in south-western Romania. In: Proceedings of the Biennial international symposium forest and sustainable development, Brașov, October 2014. Transylvania University of Brașov, Brașov, pp 151–156

[34] Claessens H, Alderweireld M, Thibaut A. Potentialities of black locust in Wallonia. For Wall, 2006, 84: 30-39. (in French)

[35] Constantinescu N (1976) Tending of forest stands, vol II. Editura Ceres, București, p 402 (in Romanian)

[36] Contu S (2012) Robinia pseudoacacia. The IUCN red list of threatened species 2012: e.T19891648A20138922. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012.RLTS.T19891648A20128922.en. Accessed 5 Oct 2018

[37] Costea A, Bîrlănescu E, Belu C. Black locust culture. Rev păd, 1963, 6: 325-329. (in Romanian)

[38] Costea A, Lăzărescu C, Bîrlănescu E, Ivanschi T, Armășescu S, Gr Trantescu, Latiș L, Pîrvu E. Recommendations on black locust culture, 1969, București: ICSPS 38 (in Romanian)

[39] Crăciunescu G. Afforestation of flying sands from the Piscu-Tunari and Ciuperceni State estates, Doljiu County. Rev păd, 1904, 2: 202-210. (in Romanian)

[40] Croatian Forests Ltd. National Forest Management Plan 2016–2025, 2016, Zagreb: Ministry of Agriculture 927 (in Croatian)

[41] Crosti R, Agrillo E, Ciccarese L, Guarino R, Paris P, Testi A. Assessing escapes from short rotation plantations of the invasive species Robinia pseudoacacia L. in Mediterranean ecosystems: a study in central Italy. iFor Bio For, 2016, 5: 822-828.

[42] CRPF. The black locust, 2007, Smarves: Centre Régional de la Propriété Forestière de Poitou-Charentes 4 (in French)

[43] CRPF. Black locust, 2011, Limoges: FOGEFOR du Limousin 2 (in French)

[44] CRPF Aquitaine. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), 2018, Bordeaux: CPFA Maison de la Forêt et de l’Agriculture 4 (in French)

[45] CRPF Bourgogne. Black locust, a tree to discover, 2014, Chalons sur Saône: CRPF 6 (in French)

[46] CRPF Nord Pas-de-Calais Picardie. Black locust, wood quality and silviculture in Picardie, 2015, Amiens: CRPF 7 (in French)

[47] Cseresnyés I, Csontos P. Soil seed bank of the invasive Robinia pseudoacacia in planted Pinus nigra stands. Acta Botanica Croatica, 2012, 2: 249-260.

[48] Dancart D. Black locust. Silv Bel, 2019, 4: 40-49. (in French)

[49] Debenne JN. Black locust, a short rotation species indispensable in the rural areas. For de Fr, 1988, 314: 29-31. (in French)

[50] DeGomez T, Wagner MR. Culture and use of black locust. HortTech, 2001, 2: 279-288.

[51] Demené JM, Merzeau D. Black locustHistory and biological characteristics. For-ent, 2007, 177: 10-12. (in French)

[52] Dimitrov E (2001) Studies on the ecological, biological and silvicultural characteristics of black locust in northeastern Bulgaria. Summary of dissertation. Forest Research Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p 56. (in Bulgarian)

[53] Dimitrova P. Assesment of the introduction of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Bulgaria. Nauka za Gorata, 2012, 1(2): 71-82. (in Bulgarian)

[54] Đodan M, Brus R, Eisold AM, Nicolescu VN, Oršanić M, Pratasiene K, Perić S. Non-native tree species in the viewpoint of climate change: chances and opportunities—Croatia as a case study. Šumarski list, 2018, 7–8: 391-402.

[55] Donchev J. About several basic aspects during establishment of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) plantations, 1968, Sofia: Scientific Reports of Forestry University, Forestry 53 61 (in Bulgarian)

[56] Drăcea MD. When and on what pathway the black locust came to us?. Eco For, 1919, 3–4: 71-75. (in Romanian)

[57] Duso C, Fontana P, Tirello P. Spread of the gall midge Obolodiplosis robiniae (Haldeman) injurious to black locust in Italy and Europe. Informatore Fitopatologico, 2005, 5: 30-33. (in Italian)

[58] Dyderski MK, Paź S, Frelich LE, Jagodziński AM. How much does climate change threaten European forest tree species distributions?. Glob Change Biol, 2017, 24: 1150-1163.

[59] Enescu CM, Dănescu A. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.)—an invasive neophyte in the conventional land reclamation flora in Romania. Bull Trans Univ Braşov Ser II For Wood Ind Agric Food Eng, 2015, 6: 23-30.

[60] Engel J, Knoche D, Lange C (2014) Recommendations to manage black locust stands. https://www.waldwissen.net/waldwirtschaft/waldbau/betriebsarten/lfe_robinienwirtschaft/index_DE. Accessed 5 April 2018. Landesbetrieb Forst Brandenburg, Potsdam (in German)

[61] Erdélyi G. Keresztesi B. Wood utilization. The black locust, 1988, Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 135 150

[62] Evans J. Silviculture of broadleaved woodland, 1984, London: Forestry Commission Bulletin, HMSO 232

[63] Executive Forest Agency (2014) National list of approved basic material. Sofia, Bulgaria. http://www.iag.bg/docs/lang/2/cat/7/index. Accessed 7 Oct 2018

[64] Executive Forest Agency. Balance of forest areas to 31/12/2015, form 2, 2015, Sofia: Executive Forest Agency (in Bulgarian)

[65] Facciotto G, Nervo G, Vietto L (2008) Biomass production with fast growing woody plants for energy purposes in Italy. ASO Funded Project Workshop ‘Increased biomass production with fast-growing tree species in short rotation forestry: impact of species and clone selection and socio-economic impacts’. Sofia, Bulgaria, 17–21 Nov 2008. University of Forestry, Sofia

[66] Feliksik E, Orzeł S, Wilczyński S. Dendrometric and dendroclimatological analyses of Black locust. EJPAU, 2007, 2: 7.

[67] Filipas M (2013) Soil seed bank in black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) stands at Medvednica Mt. and Maksimir Park. Master thesis, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, p 28 (in Croatian)

[68] Forest Europe (2015) State of Europe’s Forests 2015. Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, FOREST EUROPE Liaison Unit Madrid, p 312

[69] French Ministry of Agriculture (2018) Guidelines on the use of forest genetic resources—Robinia pseudoacacia. http://agriculture.gouv.fr/telecharger/82268?token=f8e5aa3f2fc69e7943a1e0b045b2e656. Accessed 7 Oct 2018 (in French)

[70] Gavaland A, Pagès L. Black locust for biomass production and in association with valuable hardwoods in plantation. For-Ent, 2007, 177: 26-29. (in French)

[71] Giuliani C, Lazzaro L, Mariotti Lippi M, Calamassi R, Foggi B. Temperature-related effects on the germination capacity of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L., Fabaceae) seeds. Folia Geobotanica, 2015, 50: 275-282.

[72] Giulietti V. Bonari E, Maracchi G. Robinia (Robinia pseudoacacia L.). Le biomase lignocellulosiche, 2016, Firenze: Firenze University Press 163 170 (in Italian)

[73] Giurgiu V, Drăghiciu D. Mathematical-growth models and yield tables of stands, 2004, București: Editura Ceres 607

[74] Glavaš M. Fungal diseases of forest trees, 1999, Zagreb: Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Šumarski fakultet 281 (in Croatian)

[75] Gras M. Robinia pseudoacacia L. Annotations from a bibliographic review, 1991, Roma: SAF, RESS S.p.A 59 (in Italian)

[76] Gras M, Mughini G. Ducci F, de Rogatis A. Robinia pseudoacacia L. Risorse Genetiche Forestali in Italia (chapter 4), 2009, Arezzo: CRA SEL-Centro di Ricerca per la Selvicoltura 1 4 (in Italian)

[77] Grünewald H, Böhm C, Quinkenstein A, Grundmann P, Eberts J, von Wühlisch G. Robinia pseudoacacia L.: a lesser known tree species for biomass production. BioEnergy Res, 2009, 2: 123-133.

[78] Halupa L, Rédei K. Keresztesi B. Forest tending. The black locust, 1988, Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 115 125

[79] Hanover JW (1990) Physiological genetics of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.): a model multipurpose tree species. In: Werner D, Muller P (eds) Fast growing trees and nitrogen fixing trees. International conference, Marburg, 8–12 October 1989. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart-New York, pp 175–183

[80] Haralamb AT. Culture of tree species, 1967, București: Editura Agro-silvică 755 (in Romanian)

[81] Harlow WM, Harrar ES, White FM. Textbook of dendrology, 1986 6 New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company 510

[82] Hemery G, Simblet S. The New Sylva. A discourse of forest and orchard trees for the twenty-first century, 2014, London: Bloomsbury Group 390

[83] Herman J. Forest dendrology, 1971, Zagreb: Stanbiro 470 (in Croatian)

[84] Hochbichler E, Baumgartner L, Schuster K, Starlinger F, Englisch M, Hagen R, Wolfslehner G (2015) Silvicultural recommendations for forest management in Lower Austria. Amt der NÖ Landesregierung, Abteilung Forstwirtschaft (LF4), St. Pölten, p 246 (in German)

[85] Hofmann F. Tree plantations in Marchfeld. Allgemeine Forst Zeit, 1861, 27: 833-835. (in German)

[86] http://ec.europa.eu/forematis/. European Commission 2018 FOREMATIS web site of EU Forest Reproductive Materials. Accessed 7 Oct 2018

[87] http://invasoras.pt/en/gallery/robinia-pseudoacacia-en. Accessed 10 Oct 2018

[88] https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/natura2000/index_en.htm. Accessed 2 Jan 2020

[89] https://www.ddg-web.de/index.php/rekordbaeume.html. Accessed 7 July 2018

[90] https://www.iucn.org/theme/species/our-work/invasive-species/. Accessed 2 Nov 2018

[91] https://www.monumentaltrees.com/en/trees/blacklocust/records/. Accessed 7 July 2018

[92] Huntley JC (1990) Robinia pseudoacacia L. Black locust. In: Burns RM, Honkala BH (tech coords) Silvics of North America, volume 2, hardwoods. Agriculture handbook no. 654. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, pp 755–761

[93] Iancu I. Forester’s handbook—theory and practice, 1999, București: Tipografia Pegasus 622 (in Romanian)

[94] Iby H. Experiences with Robinia in the Pannonic area. Jahreshauptversammlung, 1997, Eisenstadt: Burgenländischer Forestverein 8 (in German)

[95] Idžojtić M. Hosts and distribution of the white-berried mistletoe (Viscum album L. ssp. album) in Croatia. Sumarski List, 2003, 9–10: 439-447. (in Croatian)

[96] Idžojtić M, Glavaš M, Zebec M, Pernar R, Beuk P, Prgić I. Intensity of infection with yellow mistletoe and white-berried mistletoe on the area of the forest administrations Vinkovci and Nova Gradiška. Sumarski List, 2006, 9–10: 399-409. (in Croatian)

[97] IGN (2018) National Forest Inventory web site. https://inventaire-forestier.ign.fr/spip.php?rubrique149. Accessed 5 Oct 2018 (in French)

[98] Iliev N, Iliev I, Park YG. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Bulgaria. J Kor For Soc, 2005, 5: 291-301.

[99] Jacquin F. The University garden in Vienna, 1825, Wien: Carl Gerold 49 (in German)

[100] Jardin des Plantes (2018) Tree stories. Archives. http://www.jardindesplantes.net/sites/jardindesplantes/files/documents/histoires_d_arbres.pdf. Accessed 5 Oct 2018

[101] Jastrzębowski S, Ukalska J, Kantorowicz W, Klisz M, Wojda T, Sułkowska M. Effects of thermal-time artificial scarification on the germination dynamics of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) seeds. Eur J For Res, 2017, 136: 471-479.

[102] Jovanović B. Dendrology with the basics of phytocoenology, 1967, Beograd: Naučna knjiga 576 (in Serbian)

[103] Juhásová G, Hrubík P. Diseases and pests of foreign woody plants in Slovakia, 1984, Bratislava: Acta Dendrobiologica, VEDA 168 (in Slovak)

[104] Kadunc A. Growth and yield characteristics of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Slovenia. Gozd Vest, 2016, 74: 73-87. (in Slovenian)

[105] Kalmukov K (1995) Influence of initial stocking on the process of growth and development of some fast-growing tree species used for biomass. In: Brezin V, Yovkov I, Dinkov B, Pavlova E, Vasilev V, Draganova I (eds) Proceedings of the Jubilee Scientific Session “70 years of higher forestry education in Bulgaria”, Volume I “Forestry”. Higher Institute of Forestry, pp 129–137 (in Bulgarian)

[106] Kalmukov K (2000) Robinia pseudoacacia f. semperflorens, repeatedly blooming form of black locust. In: Pipkov N, Zhelev P, Draganova I (eds) Proceedings of the Jubilee scientific reports “75 years of higher forestry education in Bulgaria”, section “Forestry”. Higher Institute of Forestry, Sofia, pp 356–358 (in Bulgarian)

[107] Kalmukov K (2005) Growth and yield of pure and mixed black locust cultures. In: Proceedings of the symposium forest and sustainable development. Transylvania University of Brașov, Brașov, pp 91–96

[108] Kalmukov K. Specific characteristics of Robinia pseudoacacia var. semperflorens. Pl Stud, 2012, 6: 89-94. (in Bulgarian)

[109] Kalmukov K. Improvement of black locust stands in Bulgaria. Gora, 2014, 6–7: 24-26. (in Bulgarian)

[110] Keresztesi B. Breeding and cultivation of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Hungary. For Ecol Manag, 1983, 6: 217-244.

[111] Keresztesi B. Keresztesi B. Natural range of black locust and its distribution in other countries. The black locust, 1988, Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 9 17

[112] Keresztesi B. The black locust, 1988, Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó 197

[113] Kheloufi A, Mansouri LM, Aziz N, Sahnoune M, Boukemiche S, Ababsa B. Breaking seed coat dormancy of six tree species. Reforesta, 2018, 5: 4-14.

[114] Kirov D (1886) Annual report of Svishtov Forest inspectorate. In: Annual reports of forest inspectors for 1896. Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture, Forestry Department, State Printing House, Sofia, pp 453–477

[115] Kitin B (1960) Growth and condition of the black locust plantations in South Dobrudzha. Scientific research papers of the Higher Institute of Forestry, Sofia, vol 8, pp 89–135 (in Bulgarian)

[116] Kleinbauer I, Dullinger S, Peterseil F, Essl F. Climate change might drive the invasive tree Robinia pseudoacacia into nature reserves and endangered habitats. Biol Conserv, 2010, 143: 390-392.

[117] Klisz M, Ukalska J, Wojda T, Jastrzębowski S, Mionskowski M, Szyp-Borowska I. Radial growth of selected stands of black locust in Poland. Ann War Univ Life Sci SGGW For Wood Technol, 2014, 85: 123-130.

[118] Kohno MA. The history of the introduction of woody plants in Ukraine: a brief sketch, 2007, Kyiv: Fitosotsiotsentr 67 (in Ukrainian)

[119] Kostov G, Alexandrov N. Management of coppice forests, 2018, Sofia: Dijor Print 84 (in Bulgarian)

[120] Kowarik I. Novel urban ecosystems, biodiversity and conservation. Environ Poll, 2011, 8–9: 1974-1983.

[121] Krausch HD (2001) Introduction and dispersal of black locust in Europe. Bei Gehölz, pp 107–115 (in German)

[122] Kutnar L, Kobler A. The current distribution of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Slovenia and predictions for the future. Act Silv Lign, 2013, 102: 21-30. (in Slovenian)

[123] Lavnyy V, Savchyn V (2016) Ukraine. In: Hasenauer H, Gazda A, Konnert M, Lapin K, Mohren GMJ (Frits), Spiecker H, van Loo M, Pötzelsberger E (eds) Non-native tree species for european forests: experiences, risks and opportunities. FP 1403 NNEXT Country Reports, Joint Volume. University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna, pp 404–409

[124] Lazzaro L, Mazza G, d’Errico G, Fabiani A, Giuliani C, Inghilesi AF, Lagomarsino A, Landi S, Lastrucci L, Pastorelli R, Roversi PF, Torrini G, Tricarico E, Foggi B. How ecosystems change following invasion by Robinia pseudoacacia: insights from soil chemical properties and soil microbial, nematode, microarthropod and plant communities. Sci Total Environ, 2018, 622–623: 1509-1518.

[125] Lemonnier Nursery (2018) http://www.pepinieres-lemonnier.fr/catalogue/index.html#p=234. Accessed 7 Oct 2018 (in French)

[126] Lj Mihajlović, Stanivuković Z. Allochtonous insect species of forests and decorative woody species in the Republic of Srpska. Bull Fac For, 2009, 11: 1-26.

[127] Lockow KW. Black locust from a yield and ecological perspective. For Hol, 2005, 60: 450-457. (in German)

[128] Lockow KW, Lockow J. Yield table for black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.), 2015, Eutin: Gesellschaft zur Förderung schnellwachsender Baumarten 80 (in German)

[129] Los SA, Tereshchenko LI, Gayda YI. State of forest genetic resources in Ukraine, 2014, Kharkiv: Planeta-Print (in Ukrainian)

[130] Luna RK. Robinia pseudoacacia Linn, 1996, Dehra Dun: International Book Distributions 633 639

[131] Lyr H, Hoffmann G, Dohse K. The influence of degrees of shading on dry matter production in young plants of some forest species. Jena Flora, 1963, 153(Part 1): 291-311. (in German)

[132] Maceljski M, Mešić A. Phyllonorycter robiniella Clemens, a new insect pest in Croatia. Agric Consp Sci, 2001, 4: 225-230. (in Croatian)

[133] Maltoni A, Tani A, Mariotti B (2012) Black locust management in Tuscany: management of stands, use in specialized plantations, control of dispersal. Ed. Regione Toscana, Firenze, p 167 (in Italian)

[134] Mantovani D, Freese A, Veste M. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) ecophysiological and morphological adaptations to drought and their consequences on biomass production and water-use efficiency. New Z J For Sci, 2014, 29: 1-11.

[135] MAPPM (2000a) Technical norms on species compositions, planting schemes and forest regeneration technologies and afforestation of degraded lands 1. Ministerul Apelor, Pădurilor și Protecției Mediului, București, p 272 (in Romanian)

[136] MAPPM (2000b) Technical norms on tending operations 2. Ministerul Apelor, Pădurilor și Protecției Mediului, București, p 163 (in Romanian)

[137] MAPPM (2000c) Technical norms on silvicultural systems 3. Ministerul Apelor, Pădurilor și Protecției Mediului, București, p 85 (in Romanian)

[138] MAPPM (2000d) Technical norms on forest management 5. Ministerul Apelor, Pădurilor și Protecției Mediului, București, p 163 (in Romanian)

[139] McAlister RH (1971) Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington. Forest Service, American Woods-FS-24, p 6

[140] Merzeau D, Coquillas V, Bazas S. Growth of black locust in Aquitaine: productivity classes. For-ENT, 2008, 182: 49-52. (in French)

[141] Meyer-Münzer B, Grotehusmann H, Vor T. 2015. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.). In: Vor T, Spellmann H, Bolte A, Ammer C (eds). Potentials and risks of introduced tree species. Göttingen: Göttinger Forstwissenschaften 7, pp 277-296 (in German)

[142] Ministry of Agriculture and Food (2013) Regulation no. 2/07.02. 2013 on the terms and procedures for afforestation of forest areas and agricultural land used for creating special, protective and commercial forests and forests in protected areas, inventory of created plantations, their accounting and registration. SG 16/19.02.2013. Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Sofia, p 40 (in Bulgarian)

[143] MIPAAF (2017) Decree approving the national list of monumental trees. Section 1—trees whose administrative registration is complete. Ministero delle politiche agricole alimentari, forestali e del turismo, Roma, D.M.N.5440/19.12.2017. https://www.politicheagricole.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/11260. Accessed 7 Oct 2018

[144] MMP-RNP-ICAS (2012) National catalogue of basic material for the production of forest reproductive materials. Ministerul Mediului și Pădurilor, Regia Națională a Pădurilor, Institutul de Cercetări și Amenajări Silvice, București, p 282 (in Romanian)

[145] Motta R, Nola P, Berretti R. The rise and fall of the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in the “Siro Negri” Forest Reserve (Lombardy, Italy): lessons learned and future uncertainties. Ann For Sci, 2009, 4: 409-410.

[146] Muller S (2004) Robinia pseudoacacia L. Black locust. In: Muller S (eds) Invasive plants in France. Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Patrimoins naturels, Paris, vol 62, pp 92–93 (in French)

[147] Müller F. Black locust for biomass production in short rotation plantations. Öst Forst, 1990, 5: 22-24. (in German)

[148] Nadal-Sala D, Hartig F, Garcia CA, Sabaté S. Global warming likely to enhance black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) growth in a Mediterranean riparian forest. For Ecol Manag, 2019, 449: 1-14.

[149] Nasir H, Iqbal Z, Hiradate S, Fujii Y. Allelopathic potential of Robinia pseudo-acacia L. J Chem Ecol, 2005, 9: 2179-2192.

[150] Naydenov Y. About continuity and something else. Gora, 2015, 5: 22. (in Bulgarian)

[151] Negulescu E, Al Săvulescu. Dendrology, 1957, București: Editura Agro-Silvică de Stat 457 (in Romanian)

[152] Nicolescu VN, Hernea C, Bartlett D, Iacob N. Regeneration and early tending of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) stands in the north-west of Romania. S-E Eur For (SEEFOR), 2019, 2: 1-9.

[153] Olenici N, Duduman ML. New records of some invasive forest insect species in Romania. Buc For, 2016, 2: 161-174. (in Romanian)

[154] Olson DF (1974) Robinia L. Locust. In: Schopmeyer CS (tech coord) Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agriculture handbook no. 450. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, pp 728–731

[155] Pagès L. Coppice biomass growth laws: black locust in Val-de-Loire. Ann Sci For, 1986, 4: 533-550. (in French)

[156] Paris P, Todaro L, Sacchetti R, Scarascia Mugnozza G, Pisanelli A, Cannata P. Black locust for biomass plantations in marginal areas. Alb Terr, 2006, 10(11): 22-27. (in Italian)

[157] Pedrol N, Puig CG, López-Nogeueira A, Pardo-Muras M, Gonzáles L, Souza-Alonso P. Optimal and synchronized germination of Robinia pseudoacacia, Acacia dealbata and other woody Fabaceae using a handheld rotary tool: concomitant reduction of physical and physiological seed dormancy. J For Res, 2017, 29(2): 283-290.

[158] Pernek M, Matošević D. Black locust gall midge (Obolodiplosis robiniae), new pest on black locust trees and first record of parasitoid Platygaster robinae in Croatia. Šum List, 2009, 3–4: 157-163. (in Croatian)

[159] Pignatti S. Flora of Italy, 1982, Bologna: Edagricole 275 (in Italian)

[160] Poryazov Y, Tonchev T, Dobrichov I. Handbook of forest measurements, 2004, Bulvark: Sofia 419

[161] Poskin A. Handbook of silviculture, 1926, Gembloux: Librairie Agricole de la Maison Rustique 439 (in French)

[162] Pyšek P, Lambdon PW, Arianoutsou M, Kühn I, Pino J, Winter M. Nentwig W. Alien vascular plants of Europe. Handbook of Alien Species in Europe, DAISIE. Invading nature: Springer series in invasion ecology, 2009, Dordrecht: Springer 43 61

[163] Radtke A, Ambraß S, Zerbe S, Tonon G, Fontana V, Ammer C. Traditional coppice forest management drives the invasion of Ailanthus altissima and Robinia pseudoacacia into deciduous forests. For Ecol Manag, 2013, 291: 308-317.

[164] Rameau JC, Mansion D, Dumé G, Gaubreville C (1989) French Forest Flora, vol 1. Ed. IDF-CNPF, Paris, p 1785 (in French)

[165] Rédei K (1984) Yield of Black Locust Stands. FRI Research Report, Budapest, p 21 (in Hungarian)

[166] Rédei K. Rédei K. Stand establishment. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) growing in Hu∆∆∆∆∆ngary, 2013, Sárvár: Hungarian Forest Research Institute 27 34

[167] Rédei K. Rédei K. The black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and its features. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) growing in Hungary, 2013, Sárvár: Hungarian Forest Research Institute 7 11

[168] Rédei K. Rédei K. Tending and yield of black locust stands. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) growing in Hungary, 2013, Sárvár: Hungarian Forest Research Institute 35 46

[169] Rédei K. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) growing in Hungary, 2013, Budapest: Hungarian Forest Research Institute, Agroinform Kiadó 78

[170] Rédei K, Veperdi I. The role of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in establishment of short-rotation energy plantations in Hungary. Int J Hort Sci, 2009, 3: 41-44.

[171] Rédei K, Osváth-Bujtás Z, Balla I. Propagation methods for black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) improvement in Hungary. J For Res, 2001, 4: 215-219.

[172] Rédei K, Ostváth-Bujtás Z, Balla I. Clonal approaches to growing black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) in Hungary: a review. Forestry, 2002, 5: 548-552.

[173] Rédei K, Osváth-Bujtás Z, Veperdi I. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) improvement in Hungary: a review. Act Silv Lign Hung, 2008, 4: 127-132.

[174] Rédei K, Csiha I, Keserű Z. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) short-rotation crops under marginal site conditions. Act Silv Lign Hun, 2011, 7: 125-132.

[175] Rédei K, Csiha I, Keserü Z, Végh ÁK, Györi J. The silviculture of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Hungary: a review. S-E Eur For (SEEFOR), 2012, 2: 101-107.

[176] Rédei K, Csiha I, Keserű ZS, Rásó J, Kamandiné Végh A, Antal B. Growth and yield of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) stands in Nyírség growing region (north-east Hungary). S-E Eur For (SEEFOR), 2014, 1: 13-22.

[177] Rédei K, Zs Keserü, Csiha I, Ráso J, Honfy V. Plantation silviculture of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) cultivars in Hungary—a review. S-E Eur For (SEEFOR), 2017, 2: 151-156.

[178] Rițiu A, Nicolescu L, Nicolescu N. Some considerations on windfalls and windbreaks in black locust forests in the north-west of the country. Rev păd, 1988, 3: 131-133. (in Romanian)

[179] Rizzo M, Gasparini P. Occurrence and distribution of alien invasive tree species in the Italian forests. For Ideas, 2011, 1: 97-103.

[180] Roșu C. Black locust (Robinia pseudacacia L.), between legend and reality. Rev păd, 1996, 4: 17-20. (in Romanian)

[181] Rubțov S. Rubțov S. Robinia pseudacacia. Growing woody species in nurseries, 1958, București: Editura Ceres 285 291 (in Romanian)

[182] Rudolf S, Brus R. Distribution and invasiveness of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in northeast Slovenia. Gozd vest, 2006, 64: 134-140. (in Slovenian)

[183] Ruhm W (2013) Robinia, fast growing species with low demands, but not indisputable (WWW document). waldwissen.net. https://www.waldwissen.net/wald/baeume_waldpflanzen/laub/bfw-robinie/index_DE. Accessed 8 Oct 2018

[184] Sabo AE. Robinia pseudoacacia invasions and control in North America and Europe. Rest Recl Rev, 2000, 3: 1-9.

[185] Sádlo J, Vítková M, Pergl J, Pyšek P. Towards site-specific management of invasive alien trees based on the assessment of their impacts: the case of Robinia pseudoacacia. NeoBiota, 2017, 35: 1-34.

[186] Saunier R. Black locust and the beekeepers. For-ENT, 2007, 177: 45. (in French)

[187] Savill P. The silviculture of trees used in British forestry, 2013 2 Wallingford and Boston: CABI 280

[188] Schneck V (2010) Black locust—breeding initiatives and regeneration methods. Agrarholz 2010. http://veranstaltungen.fnr.de/fileadmin/allgemein/pdf/veranstaltungen/Agrarholz2010/11_2_Beitrag_Schneck.pdf. Accessed 7 Oct 2018 (in German)

[189] Schütt P. Schütt P, Weisgerber H, Schuck H, Lang U, Stimm B, Roloff A. Robinia pseudoacacia Linné, 1753. Encyclopedia of woody species, 1994, Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag 1 16 (in German)

[190] Seeling U. Black locust—only an exotic in the German forest?. For Holz, 1997, 52: 81-86. (in German)

[191] Šiljeg M (2017) The intensity of the attack of acacia moth miners in Zagreb. Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Agronomy, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, p 23 (in Croatian)

[192] Sitzia T, Cierjacks A, de Rigo D, Caudullo G. San-Miguel-Ayanz J, de Rigo D, Caudullo G, Durrant TH, Mauri A. Robinia pseudoacacia in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. European Atlas of Forest Tree Species, 2016, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union 166 167

[193] Ślusarczyk T. Robinia forests as a refuge for rare and threatened macrofungi. Prze Przy, 2012, 2: 11-41. (in Polish)

[194] Šnjegota T, Škondrić S, Šumatiš N, Topalić-Trivunović LJ 2017. Contribution to the flora of the Robinia pseudoacacia forests in Lijevče polje. In: Book of abstracts. In: 7th international symposium of ecologists—ISEM7 4–7 October 2017 Sutomore, Montenegro, p 43

[195] Spîrchez Z, Răsmeriță I, Rițiu A (1962) Afforestation of sandy lands from the north-west of the country. Editura Agro-Silvică, București, p 117 (in Romanian)

[196] Stančič L. An evaluation of invasive non-native black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) in SW Slovenia, 2015, Edinburgh: School of GeoSciences, University of Edinburgh 128

[197] Stănescu V. Dendrology, 1979, București: Editura Didactică și Pedagogică 470 (in Romanian)

[198] Stănescu V, Șofletea N, Popescu O. Wooden forest flora of Romania, 1997, București: Editura Ceres 451 (in Romanian)

[199] Starfinger U, Kowarik I (2003) Robinia pseudoacacia. https://neobiota.bfn.de/handbuch/gefaesspflanzen/robinia-pseudoacacia.html. Accessed 8 Oct 2018 (in German)

[200] Steinegger A, Reh M. Short rotation, 2013, Linz: Landwirtschaftskammer OÖ 8 (in German)

[201] Stone KR (2009) Robinia pseudoacacia. In: Laboratory FS (ed) Fire effects information system. Forst Collins, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. Accessed 5 Sept 2018

[202] Stoyanov V. Black locust—distribution, silvicultural properties, economic importance and cultivation, 1926, Sofia: Ministry of Agriculture and State Property, State Printing House 23 (in Bulgarian)

[203] Straker KC, Quinn LD, Voigt TB, Lee DK, Kling GJ. Black locust as a bioenergy feedstock: a review. Bio Res, 2015, 8: 1117-1135.

[204] Strgar V (1992) Plants and gardens in Erberg’s Dol. Ljubljana, Parks—the art of designing free, pp 96–106 (in Slovenian)

[205] Swearingen J, Bargeron C (2016) Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States. University of Georgia, Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/. Accessed 5 Sept 2018

[206] Szyp-Borowska I, Banha C, Wojda T, Szczygieł K. Micropropagation of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and genetic stability of long-term cultivated plants. Fol For Pol, 2016, 58: 14-19.

[207] Tănăsescu S. Some data on natural regeneration of black locust on sands in the south of Oltenia. Rev păd, 1961, 9: 522-525. (in Romanian)

[208] Tănăsescu S. Regarding black locust natural regeneration by seed. Rev păd, 1967, 7: 349-352. (in Romanian)

[209] Thurm EA, Hernandez L, Baltensweiler A, Ayan S, Rasztovits E, Bielak K, Mladenov Zlatanov T, Hladnik D, Balic B, Freudenschuss A, Büchsenmeister R, Falk W. Alternative tree species under climate warming in managed European forests. For Ecol Manag, 2018, 430: 485-497.

[210] Tomiczek C, Diminić D, Cech T, Hrašovec B, Krehan H, Pernek M, Perny B. Pests and diseases of urban trees, 2008, Jastrebarsko: Šumarski institut, Zagreb, Šumarski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu 370 (in Croatian)

[211] Tomov R (2003) Phyllonorycter robiniella (Clemens, 1859) (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae), new pest on Robinia pseudoacacia L. in Bulgaria. In: Scientific papers of the international scientific conference “50 years of University of Forestry”. Session plant protection. University of Forestry, Sofia, pp 105–107 (in Bulgarian)

[212] Torelli N. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) and its wood. Les, 2002, 54: 6-10. (in Slovenian)

[213] Trenchev G, Pelov V, Tomov R (1993) Parectopa robiniella (Clemens) (Gracillariidae), pest on Robinia pseudoacacia L. in Bulgaria. In: National scientific-technical conference of Forest protection, 30 March 1993, Sofia. University of Forestry, Sofia, pp 100–107 (in Bulgarian)

[214] Tu B, Gavaland A, Du K, Lu X. Black locust in China. For-ENT, 2007, 177: 50-53. (in French)

[215] Vajda Z. The science of forest protection, 1974, Zagreb: Školska knjiga 482 (in Croatian)

[216] Vakulyuk PG. Stories about the trees, 1991, Urozhay: Kyiv 296 (in Ukrainian)

[217] Vakulyuk PG, Samoplavskyy VI. Forest renewal and afforestation in plain regions of Ukraine, 1998, Polyphastic: Fastiv 508 (in Ukrainian)

[218] Van Loo M, Milcevicova R, Westergren M. Robinia pseudoacacia. Silv Slov, 2017, 151: 40-46.

[219] Vilà M, Bașnou C, Gollasch S, Josefsson M, Pergl J, Scalerra R. 2009. One hundred of the most invasive alien species in Europe In: DAISIE (ed) DAISIE handbook of alien species in Europe invading nature, (Springer series in invasion ecology, vol. 3). Dordrecht: Springer., pp 265-268

[220] Vítková M. Black locust growth management. Cas Ochr Pri, 2011, 6: 7-12. (in Czech)

[221] Vítková M, Kolbek J. Vegetation classification and synecology of Bohemian Robinia pseudacacia stands in a Central European context. Phyto, 2010, 2–3: 205-241.

[222] Vítková M, Tonika J, Müllerová J. Black locust—successful invader of a wide range of soil conditions. Sci Total Environ, 2015, 505: 315-328.

[223] Vítková M, Pergl J, Sádlo J. Krumm F, Vítková L. Black locust: from global ecology to local management—a case study from the Czech Republic. Introduced tree species in European forests: opportunities and challenges, 2016, Freiburg: European Forest Institute 306 318

[224] Vítková M, Müllerová J, Sádlo J, Pyšek P. Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) beloved and despised: a story of an invasive tree in Central Europe. For Ecol Manag, 2017, 384: 287-302.

[225] Vlase I. Conservation of forest seeds, 1982, București: Editura Ceres 278 (in Romanian)

[226] Vor T, Spellmann H, Bolte A, Ammer C. Potentials and risks of introduced tree species, 2015, Göttingen: Göttinger Forstwissenschaften 7 296

[227] Vuković N, Filipas M, Jelaska S. Alegro A, Boršić I. The overview of the invasive behavior of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Croatia. Book of abstracts, 4th Croatian botanical conference with international participation, 2013, Velika Gorica: Croatian Botanical Society 207 208 (in Croatian)

[228] Węgorek T, Kraszkiewicz A. Growth dynamics of black locust (Robinia pseudacacia L.) in middle-field shelterbelt on loess soils. Act Agric, 2005, 1: 211-218. (in Polish)

[229] Wojda T, Klisz M, Jastrzębowski S, Mionskowski M, Szyp-Borowka I, Szczygieł K. The geographical distribution of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in Poland and its role in non-forest land. P Gl Ch-IGBP, 2015, 22: 101-113.

[230] Wraber M. Non-native tree species in our forests. Gozd vest, 1951, 9: 94-103. (in Slovenian)

[231] Zajączkowski K (2013) Silviculture. Plantations of fast-growing trees. PWRiL, Warszawa, p 168 (in Polish)

[232] Zajączkowski K, Wojda T. Black locust Robinia pseudoacacia L. in economic cultivation. St Mat CEPL Rog, 2012, 14: 130-135. (in Polish)

[233] Zucchini A (1800) On the cultivation and uses of black locust, or Robinia pseudoacacia Lin., tree that grows early and forms hard and colorful wood: lecture provided on 7 August this year 1800. Ed. Cambiagi Gaetano, Firenze, p 27 (in Italian)