Towards an integrative approach to evaluate the environmental ecosystem services provided by urban forest

Abstract

As a Nature-Based Solution, urban forests deliver a number of environmental ecosystem services (EESs). To quantify these EESs, well-defined, reliable, quantifiable and stable indicators are needed. With literature analysis and expert knowledge gathered within COST Action FP1204 GreenInUrbs, we proposed a classification of urban forest EESs into three categories: (A) regulation of air, water, soil and climate; (B) provisioning of habitat quality; and (C) provisioning of other goods and services. Each category is divided into EES types: (a) amelioration of air quality; restoration of soil and water; amelioration of the microclimate; removal of CO₂ from the air; (b) provision of habitat for biodiversity; support for resilient urban ecosystems; provision of genetic diversity; and (c) provision of energy and nutrients; provision of grey infrastructure resilience. Each EES type provides one or more benefits. For each of these 12 benefits, we propose a set of indicators to be used when analyzing the impacts on the identified EESs. Around half of the 36 indicators are relevant to more than one single benefit, which highlights complex interrelationships. The indicators of wider applicability are tree and stand characteristics, followed by leaf physical traits and tree species composition. This knowledge is needed for the optimization of the EESs delivered by urban forests, now and in the future.

Keywords

Urban forests / Environmental ecosystem services / Indicators

References

[1] AIEL, Italian Agroforestry Energy Association (2008) Wood fuels handbook. www.biomasstradecentres.eu. Accessed 03 Jan 2018

[2] Akbari H, Pomerantz M, Taha H. Cool surfaces and shade trees to reduce energy use and improve air quality in urban areas. Sol Energy, 2001, 70: 295-310.

[3] Alberti M, Marzluff JM. Ecological resilience in urban ecosystems: linking urban patterns to human and ecological functions. Urban Ecosyst, 2004, 7: 241-265.

[4] Amorim JH, Rodrigues V, Tavares R, Valente J, Borrego C. CFD Modelling of the aerodynamic effect of trees on urban air pollution dispersion. Sci Total Environ, 2013, 461–462: 541-551.

[5] Armson D, Stringer P, Ennos AR. The effect of tree shade and grass on surface and globe temperatures in an urban area. Urban For Urban Green, 2012, 11: 245-255.

[6] Backhaus S, Wiehl D, Beierkuhnlein C, Jentsch A, Wellstein C. Warming and drought do not influence the palatability of Quercus pubescens Willd. Leaves of four European provenances. Arthropod-Plant Interact, 2014, 8: 329-337.

[7] Bae J, Ryu Y. Land use and land cover changes explain spatial and temporal variations of the soil organic carbon stocks in a constructed urban park. Landsc Urban Plan, 2015, 136: 57-67.

[8] Baldock KCR, Goddard MA, Hicks DM, Kunin WE, Mitschunas N, Osgathorpe LM, Potts SG, Robertson KM, Scott AV, Stone GN, Vaughan IP, Memmott J. Where is the UK’s pollinator biodiversity? The importance of urban areas for flower-visiting insects. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci, 2015 282 1803 20142849

[9] Bartra J, Mullol J, del Cuvillo A, Dávila I, Ferrer M, Jáuregui I, Montoro J, Sastre J, Valero A. Air pollution and allergens. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol, 2007, 17: 3-8.

[10] Benjamin MT, Winer AM. Estimating the ozone-forming potential of urban trees and shrubs. Atmos Environ, 1998, 32: 53-68.

[11] Bhat R, Rai RV, Karim AA. Mycotoxins in food and feed: present status and future concerns. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf, 2010, 9: 57-81.

[12] BISYPLAN (2012) The European Bioenergy System Planners web-based handbook. http://bisyplan.bioenarea.eu. Accessed 03 Jan 2018

[13] Bowler DE, Buyung AL, Knight TM, Pullin AS. Urban greening to cool towns and cities: a systematic review of the empirical evidence. Landsc Urban Plan, 2010, 97: 147-155.

[14] Braaker S, Ghazoul J, Obrist MK, Moretti M. Habitat connectivity shapes urban arthropod communities: the key role of green roofs. Ecology, 2014, 95: 1010-1021.

[15] Braaker S, Moretti M, Boesch R, Ghazoul J, Obrist MK, Bontadina F. Assessing habitat connectivity for ground-dwelling animals in an urban environment. Ecol Appl, 2014, 24: 1583-1595.

[16] Briber BM, Hutyra LR, Dunn AL, Raciti SM, Munger JW. Variations in atmospheric CO₂ mixing ratios across a Boston, MA urban to rural gradient. Land, 2013, 2: 304-327.

[17] Bröde P, Fiala D, Błażejczyk K, Holmér I, Jendritzky G, Kampmann B, Tinz B, Havenith G. Deriving the operational procedure for the universal thermal climate index (UTCI). Int J Biometeorol, 2012, 56: 481-494.

[18] Bütler R, Lachat T, Larrieu L, Paillet Y. Kraus D, Krumm F. Habitat trees: key elements for forest biodiversity. Focus—managing forest in Europe, integrative approaches as an opportunity for the conservation of forest biodiversity, 2013, Joensuu: European Forest Institute 84 91

[19] CABE. Urban green nation: building the evidence base, 2010, London: UK Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment 56

[20] Cadotte MW, Yasui SLE, Livingstone S, MacIvor JS. Are urban systems beneficial, detrimental, or indifferent for biological invasion?. Biol Invasions, 2017, 19: 3489-3503.

[21] Calfapietra C, Fares S, Loreto F. Volatile organic compounds from Italian vegetation and their interaction with ozone. Environ Pollut, 2009, 157: 1478-1486.

[22] Calfapietra C, Fares S, Manes F, Morani Sgrigna G, Loreto F. Role of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOC) emitted by urban trees on ozone concentration in cities: a review. Environ Pollut, 2013, 183: 71-80.

[23] Calfapietra C, Niinemets Ü, Peñuelas J. Urban plant physiology: adaptation-mitigation strategies under permanent stress. Trends Plant Sci, 2015, 20: 72-75.

[24] Cardinale BJ, Duffy JE, Gonzalez A, Hooper DU, Perrings C, Venail P, Narwani A, Mace GM, Tilman D, Wardle DA, Kinzig AP, Daily GC, Loreau M, Grace JB, Larigauderie A, Srivastava DS, Naeem S. Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature, 2012, 486: 59-67.

[25] Cariñanos P, Casares-Porcel M, Díaz Valle, de la Guardia A, De la Cruz Márquez R, Díaz de la Guardia C. Charting trends in the evolution of the La Alhambra forest (Granada, Spain) through analysis of pollen-emission dynamics over time. Clim Change, 2016, 135: 453-466.

[26] Celesti-Grapow L, Pysek P, Jarosik V, Blasi C. Determinants of native and alien species richness in the urban flora of Rome. Divers Distrib, 2006, 12: 490-501.

[27] Cescatti A, Niinemets Ü. Smith WK, Vogelmann TC, Chritchley C. Sunlight capture. Leaf to landscape. Photosynthetic adaptation. Chloroplast to landscape. Ecological studies 178, 2004, Berlin: Springer 42 85

[28] Chen J, Zhu L, Fan P, Tian L, Lafortezza R. Do green spaces affect the spatiotemporal changes of PM_2.5 in Nanjing?. Ecol Process, 2016, 5: 1-13.

[29] Cieslik S, Paoletti E, Omasa K. Why and how terrestrial plants exchange gases with air: a review. Plant Biol, 2009, 11: 24-34.

[30] Clavel J, Julliard R, Devictor V. Worldwide decline of specialist species: toward a global functional homogenization?. Front Ecol Environ, 2011, 9: 222-228.

[31] Cohen P, Potchter O, Matzarakis A. Daily and seasonal climatic conditions of green urban open spaces in the Mediterranean climate and their impact on human comfort. Build Environ, 2012, 51: 285-295.

[32] Colding J. ‘Ecological land-use complementation’ for building resilience in urban ecosystems. Landsc Urban Plan, 2007, 81: 46-55.

[33] Colding J, Barthel S. The potential of ‘Urban Green Commons’ in the resilience building of cities. Ecol Econ, 2013, 86: 156-166.

[34] Croci S, Butet A, Georges A, Aguejdad R, Clergeau P. Small urban woodlands as biodiversity conservation hotspot: a multitaxon approach. Landsc Ecol, 2008, 23: 1171-1186.

[35] Czech B, Krausman PR, Devers PK. Economic associations among causes of species endangerment in the United States. Bioscience, 2000, 50: 593-601.

[36] Davidson CM, Urquhart GJ, Ajmone-Marsan F, Biasioli M, Da Costa Duarte A, Díaz-Barrientos E, Grčman H, Hossack I, Hursthouse AS, Madrid L, Rodrigues S, Zupan M. Fractionation of potentially toxic elements in urban soils from five European cities by means of a harmonised sequential extraction procedure. Anal Chim Acta, 2006, 565: 63-72.

[37] De Groot RS, Wilson M, Boumans R. A typology for the description, classification and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services. Ecol Econ, 2002, 41: 393-408.

[38] de Richter DB, Jenkins DH, Karakash JT, Knight J, McCreery LR, Nemestothy KP. Wood energy in America. Science, 2009, 323: 1432-1433.

[39] DECC, Department of Energy and Climate Change (2012) UK Bioenergy Strategy, p 86. London

[40] Dimoudi A, Nikolopoulou M. Vegetation in the urban environment: microclimatic analysis and benefits. Energy Build, 2013, 35: 69-76.

[41] Disney M. Hikosaka K, Anten NPR, Niinemets Ü. Remote sensing of vegetation: potentials, limitations, developments and applications. Canopy photosynthesis: from basics to applications. Advances in photosynthesis and respiration, 2015, Berlin: Springer 283 331

[42] Djomo SN, Ac A, Zenone T, De Groote T, Bergante S, Facciotto G, Sixto H, Ciria Ciria P, Weger J, Ceulemans R. Energy performances of intensive and extensive short rotation cropping systems for woody biomass production in the EU. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2015, 41: 845-854.

[43] Dobbs C, Escobedo FJ, Zipperer WC. A framework for developing urban forest ecosystem services and goods indicators. Landsc Urban Plan, 2011, 99: 196-206.

[44] Dzierzanowski K, Gawronski SW. Use of trees for reducing particulate matter pollution in air. Chall Mod Technol, 2011, 2: 69-73.

[45] EFA. European Federation of Allergy and Airway Diseases Patients Association (2011) Respiratory allergies—raise awareness, relieve the burden. In: Valovirta E (ed). Brussels, Belgium, p 59

[46] Elmqvist T, Folke C, Nystrom M, Peterson G, Bengtsson J, Walker B, Norberg J. Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Front Ecol Environ, 2003, 1: 488-494.

[47] Escobedo FJ, Kroeger T, Wagner JE. Urban forests and pollution mitigation: analyzing ecosystem services and disservices. Environ Pollut, 2011, 159: 2078-2087.

[48] European Environment Agency (2015) Air quality in Europe—2015 report. ISBN 978-92-9213-702-1. Report No 5/2015

[49] European Environment Agency, 2018. Air quality in Europe - 2018 report. No 12/2018. Publications Office of the European Union. Luxembourg. 83 pp. ISBN 978-92-9213-989-6

[50] Fares S, McKay M, Holzinger R, Goldstein AH. Ozone fluxes in a Pinus ponderosa ecosystem are dominated by non-stomatal processes: evidence from long-term continuous measurements. Agric For Meteorol, 2010, 150: 420-431.

[51] Finerty GE, de Bello F, Bila K, Berg MP, Dias ATC, Pezzatti GB, Moretti M. Exotic or not, leaf trait dissimilarity modulates the effect of dominant species on mixed litter decomposition. J Ecol, 2016, 104: 1400-1409.

[52] Fischer J, Lindenmayer DB. Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis. Glob Ecol Biogeogr, 2007, 16: 265-280.

[53] Forsberg B, Bråbäck L, Keune H, Kobernus M, von Krauss MK, Yang A, Bartonova A. An expert assessment on climate change and health—with a European focus on lungs and allergies. Environ Health, 2012, 11: S4.

[54] Frehner M, Wasser B, Schwitter R. Nachhaltigkeit und Erfolgskontrolle im Schutzwald. Wegleitung für Pflegemassnahmen in Wäldern mit Schutzfunktion. Bundesamt für Umwelt, 2005, Bern: Wald und Landschaft.

[55] Frey D, Vega K, Zellweger F, Ghazoul J, Hansen D, Moretti M. Predation risk shaped by habitat and landscape complexity in urban environments. J Appl Ecol, 2018, 55: 2343-2353.

[56] Fu ZH, Huyan JQ, Li F, Song YS, Zhao D, Li H. Impacts of different surface covers on soil respiration in urban areas. Acta Ecol Sin, 2015, 33(18): 5500-5508.

[57] Gallo EL, Lohse KA, Brooks PD, Mcintosh JC, Meixner T, Mclain JET. Quantifying the effects of stream channels on storm water quality in a semi-arid urban environment. J Hydrol, 2012, 470–471: 98-110.

[58] Giannico V, Lafortezza R, John R, Sanesi G, Pesola L, Chen J. Estimating stand volume and above-ground biomass of urban forests using LiDAR. Remote Sens, 2016, 8: 1-14.

[59] Glück P, Avdibegović M, Čabaravdić A, Nonić D, Petrović N, Posavec S, Stojanovska M. The preconditions for the formation of private forest owners’ interest associations in the Western Balkan Region. For Policy Econ, 2010, 12: 250-263.

[60] Gómez-Baggethun E, Barton DN. Classifying and valuing ecosystem services for urban planning. Ecol Econ, 2013, 86: 235-245.

[61] Gray ER, van Heezik Y. Exotic trees can sustain native birds in urban woodlands. Urban Ecosyst, 2016, 19: 315-329.

[62] Grimm NB, Faeth SH, Golubiewski NE, Redman CL, Wu JG, Bai XM, Briggs JM. Global change and the ecology of cities. Science, 2008, 319: 756-760.

[63] Gromke C, Blocken B. Influence of avenue-trees on air quality at the urban neighborhood scale. Part II: traffic pollutant concentrations at pedestrian level. Environ Pollut, 2015, 196: 176-184.

[64] Grote R, Monson RK, Niinemets Ü. Niinemets Ü, Monson RK. Leaf-level models of constitutive and stress-driven volatile organic compound emissions. Biology, controls and models of tree volatile organic compound emissions, 2013, Berlin: Springer 315 355

[65] Grote R, Samson R, Alonso A, Amorim JU, Calfapietra C, Cariñanos P, Churkina G, Fares S, Le Thiec D, Niinemets U, Mikkelsen TN, Paoletti E, Tiwary A. Functional traits of urban trees in relation to their air pollution mitigation potential: a holistic discussion. Front Ecol Environ, 2016, 14: 543-550.

[66] Guo Z, Xiao X, Li D. An assessment of ecosystem services: water flow regulation and hydroelectric power production. Ecol Appl, 2000, 10: 925-936.

[67] Haase D, Larondelle N, Andersson E, Artmann M, Borgstrom S, Breuste J, Gomez-Baggethun E, Gren A, Hamstead Z, Hansen R, Kabisch N, Kremer P, Langemeyer J, Rall EL, McPhearson T, Pauleit S, Qureshi S, Schwarz N, Voigt A, Wurster D, Elmqvist T. A quantitative review of urban ecosystem service assessments: concepts, models, and implementation. Ambio, 2014, 43: 413-433.

[68] Hamdouch A, Depret MH. Policy integration strategy and the development of the ‘green economy’: foundations and implementation patterns. J Environ Plan Manag, 2010, 53: 473-490.

[69] Handley K, Hough-Goldstein J, Hanks LM, Millar JG, D’Amico V. Species richness and phenology of cerambycid beetles in urban forest fragments of Northern Delaware. Ann Entomol Soc Am, 2015, 108: 251-262.

[70] Hansen R, Pauleit S. From multifunctionality to multiple ecosystem services? a conceptual framework for multifunctionality in green infrastructure planning for urban areas. Ambio, 2014, 43: 516-529.

[71] Harrison T, Winfree R. Urban drivers of plant-pollinator interactions. Funct Ecol, 2015, 29: 879-888.

[72] Hinge V, Tidke J, Das B, Bhute S, Parab P, Apte K. Air pollution exacerbates effect of allergenic pollen proteins of Cassia siamea: a preliminary report. Grana, 2017, 56: 147-154.

[73] Hooper DU, Chapin FS, Ewel JJ, Hector A, Inchausti P, Lavorel S, Lawton JH, Lodge DM, Loreau M, Naeem S, Schmid B, Setala H, Symstad AJ, Vandermeer J, Wardle DA. Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecol Monogr, 2005, 75: 3-35.

[74] Ikin K, Le Roux DS, Rayner L, Villasenor NR, Eyles K, Gibbons P, Manning AD, Lindenmayer DB. Key lessons for achieving biodiversity-sensitive cities and towns. Ecol Manag Restor, 2015, 16: 206-214.

[75] Irga PJ, Burchett MD, Torpy FR. Does urban forestry have a quantitative effect on ambient air quality in an urban environment?. Atmos Environ, 2015, 120: 173-181.

[76] Isbell F, Calcagno V, Hector A, Connolly J, Harpole WS, Reich PB, Scherer-Lorenzen M, Schmid B, Tilman D, van Ruijven J, Weigelt A, Wilsey BJ, Zavaleta ES, Loreau M. High plant diversity is needed to maintain ecosystem services. Nature, 2011, 477: 199-202.

[77] Jim CY, Liu HT. Species diversity of three major urban forest types in Guangzhou City, China. For Ecol Manag, 2001, 146: 99-114.

[78] Karabourniotis G, Liakopoulos G, Nikolopoulos D, Bresta P, Stavroulaki V, Sumbele S. “Carbon gain vs. water saving, growth vs. defence”: two dilemmas with soluble phenolics as a joker. Plant Sci, 2014, 227: 21-27.

[79] Kardel F, Wuyts K, Maher BA, Samson R. Intra-urban spatial variation of magnetic particles: monitoring via leaf saturation isothermal remanent magnetisation (SIRM). Atmos Environ, 2012, 55: 111-120.

[80] Karp A, Hanley SJ, Trybush SO, Macalpine W, Pei M, Shield I. Genetic improvement of willow for bioenergy and biofuels free access. J Integr Plant Biol, 2011, 53: 151-165.

[81] Klein T, Rotenberg E, Cohen-Hilaleh E, Raz-Yaseef N, Tatarinov F, Preisler Y, Ogée J, Cohen S, Yakir D. Quantifying transpirable soil water and its relations to tree water use dynamics in a water-limited pine forest. Ecohydrology, 2014, 7: 409-419.

[82] Klemm W, Heusinkveld BG, Lenzholzer S, Jacobs MH, Van Hove B. Psychological and physical impact of urban green spaces on outdoor thermal comfort during summertime in The Netherlands. Build Environ, 2015, 83: 120-128.

[83] Knapp S, Kuhn I, Schweiger O, Klotz S. Challenging urban species diversity: contrasting phylogenetic patterns across plant functional groups in Germany. Ecol Lett, 2008, 11: 1054-1064.

[84] Knop E. Biotic homogenization of three insect groups due to urbanization. Glob Change Biol, 2016, 22: 228-236.

[85] Kühn I, Brandl R, Klotz S. The flora of German cities is naturally species rich. Evol Ecol Res, 2004, 6: 749-764.

[86] Kumar P, Imam B. Footprints of air pollution and changing environment on the sustainability of built infrastructure. Sci Total Environ, 2013, 444: 85-101.

[87] Lafortezza R, Chen J. The provision of ecosystem services in response to global change: evidences and applications. Environ Res, 2016, 147: 576-579.

[88] Laliberté E, Wells JA, DeClerck F, Metcalfe DJ, Catterall CP, Queiroz C, Aubin I, Bonser SP, Ding Y, Fraterrigo JM, McNamara S, Morgan JW, Merlos DS, Vesk PA, Mayfield MM. Land-use intensification reduces functional redundancy and response diversity in plant communities. Ecol Lett, 2010, 13: 76-86.

[89] Lambin EF, Meyfroidt P. Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proc Natl Acad Sci, 2011, 108: 3465-3472.

[90] LaPoint S, Balkenhol N, Hale J, Sadler J, van der Ree R. Ecological connectivity research in urban areas. Funct Ecol, 2015, 29: 868-878.

[91] Larcher W. Physiological plant ecology, 1995 3 Berlin: Springer 506

[92] Lavorel S, Storkey J, Bardgett RD, de Bello F, Berg MP, Le Roux X, Moretti M, Mulder C, Pakeman RJ, Diaz S, Harrington R. A novel framework for linking functional diversity of plants with other trophic levels for the quantification of ecosystem services. J Veg Sci, 2013, 24: 942-948.

[93] Le Pape P, Ayrault S, Quantin C. Trace element behavior and partition versus urbanization gradient in an urban river (Orge River, France). J Hydrol, 2012, 472–473: 99-110.

[94] Le Roux DS, Ikin K, Lindenmayer DB, Manning AD, Gibbons P. The Future of large old trees in urban landscapes. PLoS ONE, 2014 9 6 e99403

[95] Lee R. Forest hydrology, 1980, New York: Columbia University Press

[96] Lehvavirta S, Rita H. Natural regeneration of trees in urban woodlands. J Veg Sci, 2002, 13: 57-66.

[97] Leibold MA, Holyoak M, Mouquet N, Amarasekare P, Chase JM, Hoopes MF, Holt RD, Shurin JB, Law R, Tilman D, Loreau M, Gonzalez A. The metacommunity concept: a framework for multi-scale community ecology. Ecol Lett, 2004, 7: 601-613.

[98] Lelieveld J, Dentener FJ. What controls tropospheric ozone?. J Geophys Res Atmos, 2000, 105: 3531-3551.

[99] Lepczyk CA, Aronson MFJ, Evans KL, Goddard MA, Lerman SB, Macivor JS. Biodiversity in the city: fundamental questions for understanding the ecology of urban green spaces for biodiversity conservation. Bioscience, 2017, 67: 799-807.

[100] Li W, Wang F, Bell S. Simulating the sheltering effects of windbreaks in urban outdoor open space. J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn, 2007, 95: 533-549.

[101] Li S, Tosens S, Harley PC, Jiang Y, Kanagendran A, Grosberg M, Jaamets K, Niinemets Ü. Glandular trichomes as a barrier against atmospheric oxidative stress: relationships with ozone uptake, leaf damage, and emission of LOX products across a diverse set of species. Plant Cell Environ, 2018, 41: 1263-1277.

[102] Lim MT, Phan A, Roddy D, Harvey A. Technologies for measurement and mitigation of particulate emissions from domestic combustion of biomass: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 2015, 49: 574-584.

[103] Lindberg F, Holmer B, Thorsson S, Rayner D. Characteristics of the mean radiant temperature in high latitude cities - implications for sensitive climate planning applications. Int J Biometeorol, 2014, 58: 613-627.

[104] Llausàs A, Roe M. Green infrastructure planning: cross-national analysis between the North East of England (UK) and Catalonia (Spain). Eur Plan Stud, 2012, 20: 641-663.

[105] Llorens P, Domingo F. Rainfall partitioning by vegetation under Mediterranean conditions. A review of studies in Europe. J Hidrol, 2007, 335: 37-54.

[106] Lo Gullo MA, Salleo S. Different strategies of drought resistance in three Mediterranean sclerophyllous trees growing in the same environmental conditions. New Phytol, 1988, 108: 267-276.

[107] Madureira H, Andresen T. Planning for multifunctional urban green infrastructures: promises and challenges. Urban Des Int, 2014, 19: 38-49.

[108] Maes J, Liquete C, Teller A, Erhard M, Paracchini ML, Barredo J, Grizzetti B, Cardoso A, Somma F, Petersen JE, Meiner A, Royo Gelabert E, Zal N, Kristensen P, Bastrup-Birk A, Biala K, Piroddi C, Egoh B, Degeorges P, Fiorina C, Santos-Martín F, ševičius VN, Verboven J, Pereira EM, Bengtsson J, Gocheva K, Pedroso CM, Snäll T, Estreguil C, San-Miguel-Ayanz J, Pérez-Soba M, Grêt-Regamey A, Lillebø A, Malak DA, Condé S, Moen J, Czúcz B, Drakou EG, Lavalle C, Zulian G. An indicator framework for assessing ecosystem services in support of the EU biodiversity strategy to 2020. Ecosyst Serv, 2016, 17: 14-23.

[109] Mariani L, Parisi SG, Cola G, Lafortezza R, Colangelo G, Sanesi G. Climatological analysis of the mitigating effect of vegetation on the urban heat island of Milan, Italy. Sci Total Environ, 2016, 569: 762-773.

[110] Matzarakis A, Mayer H, Iziomon MG. Applications of a universal thermal index: physiological equivalent temperature. Int J Biometeorol, 1999, 43: 76-84.

[111] McAfee BJ, Nealis VG, Malouin C. Invasive alien species at the urban-forest interface. Environments, 2006, 34: 85-88.

[112] McDonald AG, Bealey WJ, Fowler D, Dragosits U, Skiba U, Smith RI, Donovan RG, Brett HE, Hewitt CN, Nemitz E. Quantifying the effect of urban tree planting on concentrations and depositions of PM₁₀ in two UK conurbations. Atmos Environ, 2007, 41: 8455-8467.

[113] McElhinny C, Gibbons P, Brack C, Bauhus J. Fauna–habitat relationships: a basis for identifying key stand structural attributes in temperate Australian eucalypt forests and woodlands. Conserv Biol, 2006, 12: 89-110.

[114] McKinney ML. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. Bioscience, 2002, 52: 883-890.

[115] McKinney ML. Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol Cons, 2006, 127: 247-260.

[116] McLain RJ, MacFarland K, Brody L, Hebert J, Hurley P, Poe M, Buttolph LP, Gabriel N, Dzuna M, Emery MR, Charnley S (2012) Gathering in the city: an annotated bibliography and review of the literature about human-plant interactions in urban ecosystems, pp 107. General Technical Reports PNW-GTR-849. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station

[117] MEA, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and human well-being. A framework for assessment, 2005, Washington, DC: Island Press 281

[118] Mills G, Cleugh H, Emmanuel R, Endlicher W, Erell E, McGranahan G, Ng E, Nickson A, Rosenthal J, Steemer K. Climate information for improved planning and management of mega cities (needs perspective). Procedia Environ Sci, 2010, 1: 228-246.

[119] Mori J, Sæbø A, Hanslin HM, Teani A, Ferrini F, Fini A, Burchi G. Deposition of traffic-related air pollutants on leaves of six evergreen shrub species during a Mediterranean summer season. Urban For Urban Green, 2015, 14: 264-273.

[120] Niinemets Ü. Hikosaka K, Anten NPR, Niinemets Ü. Within-canopy variations in functional leaf traits: structural, chemical and ecological controls and diversity of responses. Canopy photosynthesis: from basics to applications. Advances in photosynthesis and respiration, 2015, Berlin: Springer 101 141

[121] Niinemets Ü, Kuhn U, Harley PC, Staudt M, Arneth A, Cescatti A, Ciccioli P, Copolovici L, Geron C, Guenther AB, Kesselmeier J, Lerdau MT, Monson RK, Peñuelas J. Estimations of isoprenoid emission capacity from enclosure studies: measurements, data processing, quality and standardized measurement protocols. Biogeosciences, 2011, 8: 2209-2246.

[122] Niinemets Ü, Fares S, Harley P, Jardine KJ. Bidirectional exchange of biogenic volatiles with vegetation: emission sources, reactions, breakdown and deposition. Plant Cell Environ, 2014, 37: 1790-1809.

[123] Nobis MP, Jaeger JAG, Zimmermann NE. Neophyte species richness at the landscape scale under urban sprawl and climate warming. Divers Distrib, 2009, 15: 928-939.

[124] Nowak DJ. Institutionalizing urban forestry as a “biotechnology” to improve environmental quality. Urban For Urban Green, 2006, 5: 93-100.

[125] Nowak DJ, Crane DE. Carbon storage and sequestration by urban trees in the USA. Environ Pollut, 2002, 116: 381-389.

[126] Nowak DJ, Stevens JC, Sisinni SM, Luley CJ. Effects of urban tree management and species selection on atmospheric carbon dioxide. J Arboric, 2002, 28: 113-122.

[127] Nowak DJ, Crane DE, Stevens JC. Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States. Urban For Urban Green, 2006, 4: 115-123.

[128] Nowak D, Jovan S, Branquinho C, Augusto S, Ribeiro MC, Kretsch CE (2015) Biodiversity, air quality and human health. In: Romanelli et al. Connecting Global Priorities - Biodiversity and Human Health: A State of Knowledge Review. World Health Organization and Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Chapter 4, p 63–74. ISBN 978 92 4 150853 7

[129] Nowak DJ, Hirabayashi S, Doyle M, McGovern M, Pasher J. Air pollution removal by urban forests in Canada and its effect on air quality and human health. Urban For Urban Green, 2018, 29: 40-48.

[130] Oishi Y, Tabata K (2015) The importance of large trees in shrine forests for the conservation of epiphytic bryophytes in urban areas. In: Lo Y-H, Blanco JA, Roy S (eds) Biodiversity in ecosystems—linking structure and function. IntechOpen, London, UK, ISBN 978-953-51-2028-5

[131] Oke TR. The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Q J R Meteorol Soc, 1982, 108(455): 1-24.

[132] Olofsson M, Ek-Olausson B, Jensen NO, Langer S, Ljungström E. The flux of isoprene from a willow coppice plantation and the effect on local air quality. Atmos Environ, 2005, 39: 2061-2070.

[133] Owen SM, Hewitt CN, Rowland CS. Niinemets Ü, Monson RK. Scaling emissions from agroforestry plantations and urban habitats. Biology, controls and models of tree volatile organic compound emissions. Tree physiology, 2013, Heidelberg: Springer 415 450

[134] Palahi M, Mavsar R, Gracia C, Birot Y. Mediterranean forests under focus. Int For Rev, 2008, 10: 676-688.

[135] Pandit R, Polyakov M, Tapsuwan S, Moran T. The effect of street trees on property value in Perth, Western Australia. Landsc Urban Plan, 2013, 110: 134-142.

[136] Paoletti E. Impact of ozone on Mediterranean forests: a review. Environ Pollut, 2006, 144: 463-474.

[137] Paoletti E. Ozone and urban forests in Italy. Environ Pollut, 2009, 157: 1506-1512.

[138] Paoletti E, Karnosky DF, Percy KE (2004) Urban trees and air pollution. In: Konijnendijk CC, Schipperijn J, Hoyer KK (eds) Forestry serving urbanised societies, vol 14. IUFRO World Series, IUFRO Headquarters, Vienna, pp 129–154

[139] Pascal M, Corso M, Chanel O, Declercq C, Badaloni C, Cesaroni G, Henschel S, Meister K, Haluza D, Martin-Olmedo P, Medina S. Assessing the public health impacts of urban air pollution in 25 European cities: results of the Aphekom project. Sci Total Environ, 2013, 449: 390-400.

[140] Pataki DE, McCarthy HR, Litvak E, Pincetl S. Transpiration of urban forests in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Ecol Appl, 2011, 21: 661-677.

[141] Pearlmutter D, Berliner P, Shaviv E. Urban climatology in arid regions: current research in the Negev desert. Int J Climatol, 2007, 27: 1875-1885.

[142] Pesola L, Cheng X, Sanesi G, Colangelo G, Elia M, Lafortezza R. Linking aboveground biomass and biodiversity to stand development in urban forest areas: a case study in northern Italy. Landsc Urban Plan, 2017, 157: 90-97.

[143] Pinho P, Correia O, Lecoq M, Munzi S, Vasconcelos S, Gonçalves P, Rebelo R, Antunes C, Silva P, Freitas C, Lopes N, Santos-Reis M, Branquinho C. Evaluating green infrastructure in urban environments using a multi-taxa and functional diversity approach. Environ Res, 2016, 147: 601-610.

[144] Popek R, Gawrońska H, Wrochna M, Gawroński SW, Sæbø A. Particulate matter on foliage of 13 woody species: deposition on surfaces and phytostabilisation in waxes–a 3-year study. Int J Phytorem, 2013, 15: 245-256.

[145] Puppim de Oliveira JA, Doll CNH, Moreno-Peñaranda R, Balaban O. Urban biodiversity and climate change. Global environmental change, 2014, Dordrecht: Springer 461 468

[146] Pyšek P. Alien and native species in Central European urban floras: a quantitative comparison. J Biogeogr, 1998, 25: 155-163.

[147] Ren Y, Ge Y, Gu B, Min Y, Tani A, Chang J. Role of management strategies and environmental factors in determining the emissions of biogenic volatile organic compounds from urban greenspaces. Environ Sci Technol, 2014, 48: 6237-6246.

[148] Rosenfeld AH, Romm JJ, Akbari H, Pomerantz M. Cool communities: strategies for heat island mitigation and smog reduction. Energy Build, 1998, 28: 51-62.

[149] Roy S, Byrne J, Pickering C. A systematic quantitative review of urban tree benefits, costs, and assessment methods across cities in different climatic zones. Urban For Urban Green, 2012, 11: 351-363.

[150] Saaroni H, Amorim JH, Hiemstra JA, Pearlmutter D. Urban Green Infrastructure as a tool for urban heat mitigation: survey of research methodologies and findings across different climatic regions. Urban Clim, 2018, 24: 94-110.

[151] Sadanandan KR, Rheindt FE. Genetic diversity of a tropical rainforest understory bird in an urban fragmented landscape. Condor, 2015, 117: 447-459.

[152] Salmond JA, Williams DE, Laing G, Kingham S, Dirks K, Longley I, Henshaw GS. The influence of vegetation on the horizontal and vertical distribution of pollutants in a street canyon. Sci Total Environ, 2013, 443: 287-298.

[153] Sattler T, Borcard D, Arlettaz R, Bontadina F, Legendre P, Obrist MK, Moretti M. Spider, bee, and bird communities in cities are shaped by environmental control and high stochasticity. Ecology, 2010, 91: 3343-3353.

[154] Sattler T, Obrist MK, Duelli P, Moretti M. Urban arthropod communities: added value or just a blend of surrounding biodiversity?. Landsc Urban Plan, 2011, 103: 347-361.

[155] Seidel D, Busch G, Krause B, Bade C, Fessel C, Kleinn C. Quantification of biomass production potentials from trees outside forests—a case study from central Germany. BioEnergy Res, 2015, 8: 1344-1351.

[156] Shashua-Bar L, Pearlmutter D, Erell E. The influence of trees and grass on outdoor thermal comfort in a hot-arid environment. Int J Climatol, 2011, 31: 1498-1506.

[157] Shwartz A, Turbé A, Simon L, Julliard R. Enhancing urban biodiversity and its influence on city-dwellers: an experiment. Biol Conserv, 2014, 171: 82-90.

[158] Sicard P, Augustaitis A, Belyazid S, Calfapietra C, De Marco A, Fenn M, Grulke N, He S, Matyssek R, Serengil Y, Wieser G, Paoletti E. Global topics and novel approaches in the study of air pollution, climate change and forest ecosystems. Environ Pollut, 2016, 213: 977-987.

[159] Sicard P, Agathokleous E, Araminiene V, Carrari E, Hoshika Y, De Marco A, Paoletti E. Should we see urban trees as effective solutions to reduce increasing ozone levels in cities?. Environ Pollut, 2018, 243: 163-176.

[160] Speight MCD (1989) Saproxylic invertebrates and their conservation. Council of Europe, Nature and environment series 42, pp 1–81. Strasbourg

[161] Stott I, Soga M, Inger R, Gaston KJ. Land sparing is crucial for urban ecosystem services. Front Ecol Environ, 2015, 13: 387-393.

[162] Susca T, Gaffin SR, Dell’Osso GR. Positive effects of vegetation: urban heat island and green roofs. Environ Pollut, 2011, 159: 2119-2126.

[163] Tassicker A, Kutt A, Vanderduys EMS. The effects of vegetation structure on the birds in a tropical savanna woodland in north-eastern Australia. Rangel J, 2006, 28: 139-152.

[164] Taylor PD, Fahrig L, With KA. Crooks KR, Sanjayan M. Landscape connectivity: a return to the basics. Connectivity conservation, 2006, New York: Cambridge University Press 29 43

[165] TEEB, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity. The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: ecological and economic foundations, 2010, London: Earthscan.

[166] Terho M, Hallaksela AM. Decay characteristics of hazardous Tilia, Betula, and Acer trees felled by municipal urban tree managers in the Helsinki City Area. Forestry, 2008, 81: 151-159.

[167] Terzaghi E, Wild E, Zachello G, Cerabolini BEL, Jones KC, Di Guarda A. Forest filters effects: role of leaves in capturing/releasing air particulate matter and its associated PAHs. Atmos Environ, 2013, 74: 378-384.

[168] Thornton PE, Law BE, Gholz HL, Clark KL, Falge E, Ellsworth DS, Goldstein AH, Monson RK, Hollinger D, Falk M, Chen J, Sparks JP. Modeling and measuring the effects of disturbance history and climate on carbon and water budgets in evergreen needleleaf forests. Agric For Meteorol, 2002, 113: 185-222.

[169] Ticktin T, Shackleton C. Harvesting non-timber forest products sustainably: opportunities and challenges. Non-timber forest products in the global context, 2011, Berlin Heidelberg: Springer 149 169

[170] Tiwary A, Kumar P. Impact evaluation of green–grey infrastructure interaction on built-space integrity: an emerging perspective to urban ecosystem service. Sci Total Environ, 2014, 487: 350-360.

[171] Tiwary A, Williams ID, Heidrich O, Namdeo A, Bandaru V, Calfapietra C. Development of multi-functional streetscape green infrastructure using a performance index approach. Environ Pollut, 2016, 208: 209-220.

[172] Tresch S, Frey D, Le Bayon RC, Zanetta A, Rasche F, Fliessbach A, Moretti M. Litter decomposition driven by soil fauna and plant diversity in urban gardens. Sci Total Environ, 2019, 658: 1614-1629.

[173] Turrini T, Knop E. A landscape ecology approach identifies important drivers of urban biodiversity. Glob Change Biol, 2015, 21: 1652-1667.

[174] United Nations (2018) World urbanization prospects: the 2018 revision. Economic and social affairs. https://population.un.org/wup/Publications/Files/WUP2018-KeyFacts.pdf. Accessed 17 Oct 2018

[175] Vandekerkhove K, Thomaes AB, Jonsson G. Kraus D, Krumm F. Connectivity and fragmentation: island biogeography and metapopulation applied to old-growth elements. Integrative approaches as an opportunity for the conservation of forest biodiversity, 2013, Freiburg: European Forest Institute.

[176] Vergnes A, Viol IL, Clergeau P. Green corridors in urban landscapes affect the arthropod communities of domestic gardens. Biol Conserv, 2012, 145: 171-178.

[177] Vidal-Beaudet L, Forget-Caubel V, Grosbellet C. Favour street tree root growth with high supplies of organic matter induces changes in urban soil properties. Acta Hort, 2015, 1099: 943-950.

[178] Vilhar U, Simoncic P. Identification of key indicators for drinking water protection services in the urban forests of Ljubljana. South-east Eur For, 2013, 3: 103-113.

[179] Vos PEJ, Maiheu B, Vankerkom J, Janssen S. Improving local air quality in cities: to tree or not to tree?. Environ Pollut, 2013, 183: 113-122.

[180] Vuletić D, Posavec S, Krajter S, Paladinić E. Payments for environmental services (PES) in Croatia – public and professional perception and needs for adaptation. South-east Eur For, 2010, 1: 51-98.

[181] Wang WJ, Zhang B, Xiao L, Zhou W, Wang HM, He XY. Decoupling forest characteristics and background conditions to explain urban-rural variations of multiple microclimate regulation from urban trees. Peer J, 2018, 6: e5450.

[182] Woodbury PB, Smith JE, Heath LS. Carbon sequestration in the U.S. forest sector from 1990 to 2010. For Ecol Manag, 2007, 241: 14-27.

[183] Wright IJ, Reich PB, Westoby M, Ackerly DD, Baruch Z, Bongers F, Cavender-Bares J, Chapin T, Cornelissen JHC, Diemer M, Flexas J, Garnier E, Groom PK, Gulias J, Hikosaka K, Lamont BB, Lee T, Lee W, Lusk C, Midgley JJ, Navas ML, Niinemets Ü, Oleksyn J, Osada N, Poorter H, Poot P, Prior L, Pyankov VI, Roumet C, Thomas SC, Tjoelker MG, Veneklaas E, Villar R. The world-wide leaf economics spectrum. Nature, 2004, 428: 821-827.

[184] Wu J, Li N, Chen Z, Yu S (2010) The effect of CO₂ sequestration and O₂ release of urban vegetation in Shenzhen special zone. Zhongshan Daxue Xuebao/Acta Scientiarum Natralium Universitatis Sunyatseni 49:86–92

[185] Ziello C, Sparks TH, Estrella N, Belmonte J, Bergmann KC, Bucher E, Brighetti MA, Damialis A, Detandt M, Galán C, Gehrig R, Grewling L, Gutiérrez Bustillo AM, Hallsdóttir M, Kockhans-Bieda MC, De Linares C, Myszkowska D, Pàldy A, Sánchez A, Smith M, Thibaudon M, Travaglini A, Uruska A, Valencia-Barrera RM, Vokou D, Wachter R, de Weger LA, Menzel A. Changes to airborne pollen counts across Europe. PLOS One, 2012, 7: 1-8.