Long-term charcoal-induced changes to soil properties in temperate regions of northern Iran

Abstract

The long-term performance and benefits of charcoal application on the carbon sequestration and properties of forest soils in temperate or non-tropical regions has not been studied in detail in spite of its important role in global warming. This study was conducted to describe the long-term charcoal-induced changes in organic carbon (OC) content and other soil properties of temperate deciduous forests in Mazandaran province, northern Iran. Three sites were sampled to collect composite soil samples from two depths (0–20 and 20–40 cm) inside and outside of a plot of charcoal-enriched soils surrounding a historical charcoal production site (abandoned for more than 120 years). The presence of charcoal in soils for about 120 years elevated significantly the black carbon, total OC, natural soil OC, total nitrogen, dissolved organic matter, soil OC density, exchangeable bases, saturated hydraulic conductivity, available water capacity and available Fe, Mn and Zn compared to the adjacent reference soils. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) and pH were 15.5 cmol_c kg⁻¹ and 0.5 units, respectively, higher than the adjacent reference soils at 0–20 cm soil depth. However, electrical conductivity (EC), bulk density and available Cu were higher in the adjacent reference soil. The aged charcoal had no significant effect on the microbial respiration rate of studied soils. The results of this study provide new insights and strong support for the long-term benefits of biochar application as a management strategy for improving soil productivity as well as sequestering large quantities of durable carbon in soils of the region and mitigating global warming.

Keywords

Biochar / Black carbon / Forest soils / Luvisols / Temperate climate / Terra preta

References

[1] Alef K, Nannipieri P. Methods in applied soil microbiology and biochemistry, 1995, London: Academic Press.

[2] Araujo SR, Söderström M, Eriksson J, Isendahl C, Stenborg P, Demattê JM. Determining soil properties in Amazonian Dark Earths by reflectance spectroscopy. Geoderma, 2015, 237: 308-317.

[3] Bayabil HK, Stoof CR, Lehmann JC, Yitaferu B, Steenhuis TS. Assessing the potential of biochar and charcoal to improve soil hydraulic properties in the humid Ethiopian Highlands: the Anjeni watershed. Geoderma, 2015, 243: 115-123.

[4] Borchard N, Ladd B, Eschemann S, Hegenberg D, Möseler BM, Amelung W. Black carbon and soil properties at historical charcoal production sites in Germany. Geoderma, 2014, 232: 236-242.

[5] Brodowski S, Rodionov A, Haumaier L, Glaser B, Amelung W. Revised black carbon assessment using benzene polycarboxylic acids. Org Geochem, 2005, 36: 1299-1310.

[6] Brodowski S, John B, Flessa H, Amelung W. Aggregate-occluded black carbon in soil. Eur J Soil Sci, 2006, 57: 539-546.

[7] Castaldi S, Riondino M, Baronti S, Esposito F, Marzaioli R, Rutigliano F, Vaccari F, Miglietta F. Impact of biochar application to a Mediterranean wheat crop on soil microbial activity and greenhouse gas fluxes. Chemosphere, 2011, 85: 1464-1471.

[8] Cayuela M, Van Zwieten L, Singh B, Jeffery S, Roig A, Sánchez-Monedero M. Biochar’s role in mitigating soil nitrous oxide emissions: a review and meta-analysis. Agric Ecosyst Environ, 2014, 191: 5-16.

[9] Chapman HD. Black CA. Cation exchange capacity. Methods of soil analysis, 1965, Madison: American Society of Agronomy 891 901

[10] DeLuca TH, Gundale MJ, MacKenzie MD, Jones DL. Joseph S. Biochar effects on soil nutrient transformations. Biochar for Environmental Management: Science and Technology, 2015, Routledge: Earthscan Ltd 251 270

[11] Dexter AR. Advances in characterization of soil structure. Soil Tillage Res, 1988, 11: 199-238.

[12] Downie AE, Van Zwieten L, Smernik RJ, Morris S, Munroe PR. Terra Preta Australis: reassessing the carbon storage capacity of temperate soils. Agric Ecosyst Environ, 2011, 140: 137-147.

[13] Emadi M, Baghernejad M, Memarian HR. Effect of land-use change on soil fertility characteristics within water-stable aggregates of two cultivated soils in northern Iran. Land Use Policy, 2009, 26: 452-457.

[14] Emadi M, Baghernejad M, Bahmanyar MA, Morovvat A. Changes in soil inorganic phosphorous pools along a precipitation gradient in northern Iran. Int J Forest Soil Eros, 2012, 2: 143-147.

[15] Falcao N, Clement C, Tsai S, Comerford N. Sombroek W. Pedology, fertility, and biology of central Amazonian Dark Earths. Amazonian Dark Earths, 2009, Amsterdam: Springer 213 228

[16] Fraser JA, Clement CR. Dark Earths and manioc cultivation in Central Amazonia: a window on pre-Columbian agricultural systems?. Bol Mus Para Emílio Goeldi Ciênc Hum, 2008, 3: 175-194.

[17] Glaser B. Prehistorically modified soils of central Amazonia: a model for sustainable agriculture in the twenty-first century. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 2007, 362: 187-196.

[18] Glaser B, Birk JJ. State of the scientific knowledge on properties and genesis of Anthropogenic Dark Earths in Central Amazonia (terra preta de Índio). Geochim Cosmochim Acta, 2012, 82: 39-51.

[19] Glaser B, Balashov E, Haumaier L, Guggenberger G, Zech W. Black carbon in density fractions of anthropogenic soils of the Brazilian Amazon region. Org Geochem, 2000, 31: 669-678.

[20] Glaser B, Haumaier L, Guggenberger G, Zech W. The’Terra Preta’phenomenon: a model for sustainable agriculture in the humid tropics. Naturwissenschaften, 2001, 88: 37-41.

[21] Goldberg E. Black carbon in the environment, 1985, New York: Wiley 198

[22] Gómez-Luna BE, Rivera-Mosqueda MC, Dendooven L, Vázquez-Marrufo G, Olalde-Portugal V. Charcoal production at kiln sites affects C and N dynamics and associated soil microorganisms in Quercus spp. temperate forests of central Mexico. Appl Soil Ecol, 2009, 41: 50-58.

[23] Hardy B, Dufey JE, Cornelis JT (2014) Former charcoal kiln sites where forest was cleared for cultivation: a case study of old biochar in cropland. In: Proceedings of the EGU General Assembly Conference. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EGUGA.16.2561H. Accessed 28 May 2017

[24] Hardy B, Cornelis JT, Houben D, Lambert R, Dufey J. The effect of pre-industrial charcoal kilns on chemical properties of forest soil of Wallonia, Belgium. Eur J Soil Sci, 2016, 67: 206-216.

[25] Heitkotter J, Marschner B. Interactive effects of biochar ageing in soils related to feedstock, pyrolysis temperature, and historic charcoal production. Geoderma, 2015, 245: 56-64.

[26] Hernandez-Soriano MC, Kerré B, Goos P, Hardy B, Dufey J, Smolders E. Long-term effect of biochar on the stabilization of recent carbon: soils with historical inputs of charcoal. Glob Chang Biol, 2016, 8: 371-381.

[27] Kaal J, Nierop KG, Kraal P, Preston CM. A first step towards identification of tannin-derived black carbon: conventional pyrolysis (Py–GC–MS) and thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation (THM–GC–MS) of charred condensed tannins. Org Geochem, 2012, 47: 99-108.

[28] Karhu K, Mattila T, Bergström I, Regina K. Biochar addition to agricultural soil increased CH 4 uptake and water holding capacity–results from a short-term pilot field study. Agric Ecosyst Environ, 2011, 140: 309-313.

[29] Keiluweit M, Nico PS, Johnson MG, Kleber M. Dynamic molecular structure of plant biomass-derived black carbon (biochar). Environ Sci Technol, 2010, 44: 1247-1253.

[30] Kleber M, Sollins P, Sutton R. A conceptual model of organo-mineral interactions in soils: self-assembly of organic molecular fragments into zonal structures on mineral surfaces. Biogeochemistry, 2007, 85: 9-24.

[31] Kuzyakov Y, Subbotina I, Chen H, Bogomolova I, Xu X. Black carbon decomposition and incorporation into soil microbial biomass estimated by 14 C labeling. Soil Biol Biochem, 2009, 41: 210-219.

[32] Lehmann J, Rondon M. Uphoff N. Biochar soil management on highly weathered soils in the humid tropics. Biological approaches to sustainable soil systems, 2006, Boca Raton: CRC Press 517 530

[33] Lehmann J, Sohi S. Comment on “fire-derived charcoal causes loss of forest humus”. Science, 2008, 321: 1295-1296.

[34] Lehmann J, Kern DC, Glaser B, Woods WI. Amazonian dark earths: origin properties management, 2007, Amsterdam: Springer 505

[35] Lehmann J, Skjemstad J, Sohi S, Carter J, Barson M, Falloon P, Coleman K, Woodbury P, Krull E. Australian climate–carbon cycle feedback reduced by soil black carbon. Nat Geosci, 2008, 1: 832-835.

[36] Lehmann J, Rillig MC, Thies J, Masiello CA, Hockaday WC, Crowley D. Biochar effects on soil biota–a review. Soil Biol Biochem, 2011, 43: 1812-1836.

[37] Liang B, Lehmann J, Solomon D, Kinyangi J, Grossman J, O’neill B, Skjemstad J, Thies J, Luizao F, Petersen J. Black carbon increases cation exchange capacity in soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 2006, 70: 1719-1730.

[38] Liang B, Lehmann J, Solomon D, Sohi S, Thies JE, Skjemstad JO, Luizao FJ, Engelhard MH, Neves EG, Wirick S. Stability of biomass-derived black carbon in soils. Geochim Cosmochim Acta, 2008, 72: 6069-6078.

[39] Liang B, Lehmann J, Sohi SP, Thies JE, O’Neill B, Trujillo L, Gaunt J, Solomon D, Grossman J, Neves EG. Black carbon affects the cycling of non-black carbon in soil. Org Geochem, 2010, 41: 206-213.

[40] Lin Y, Munroe P, Joseph S, Henderson R, Ziolkowski A. Water extractable organic carbon in untreated and chemical treated biochars. Chemosphere, 2012, 87: 151-157.

[41] Lindsay WL, Norvell WA. Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese, and copper. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1978, 42: 421-428.

[42] McBeath AV, Smernik RJ, Schneider MP, Schmidt MW, Plant EL. Determination of the aromaticity and the degree of aromatic condensation of a thermosequence of wood charcoal using NMR. Org Geochem, 2011, 42: 1194-1202.

[43] McGill W, Figueiredo C. Carter M. Total nitrogen. Soil sampling and methods of analysis, 1993, Boca Raton: Lewis Publications 201 211

[44] Mikan CJ, Abrams MD. Altered forest composition and soil properties of historic charcoal hearths in southeastern Pennsylvania. Can J For Res, 1995, 25: 687-696.

[45] Mukherjee A, Lal R, Zimmerman A. Effects of biochar and other amendments on the physical properties and greenhouse gas emissions of an artificially degraded soil. Sci Total Environ, 2014, 487: 26-36.

[46] Oguntunde PG, Fosu M, Ajayi AE, Van De Giesen N. Effects of charcoal production on maize yield, chemical properties and texture of soil. Biol Fert Soil, 2004, 39: 295-299.

[47] Olsen S, Cole C, Watanabe F, Dean L (1954) Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. USDA, Circular No 939, US Gov. Print. Office, Washington, D.C.

[48] Petersen JB, Neves EG, Heckenberger MJ. Colin M, Christina B, Eduardo N. Gift from the past: terra preta and prehistoric Amerindian occupation in Amazonia. Unknown Amazon: culture in nature in ancient, 2001, London: British Museum Press 86 107

[49] Pignatello JJ, Kwon S, Lu Y. Effect of natural organic substances on the surface and adsorptive properties of environmental black carbon (char): attenuation of surface activity by humic and fulvic acids. Environ Sci Technol, 2006, 40: 7757-7763.

[50] Qayyum MF (2012) Possibilities to stabilize organic matter in soil using various biochars. giessen.de/geb/volltexte/2012/8764/pdf/QayyumFarooqMuhammad_2012_05_23.pdf. Accessed 28 May 2017

[51] Qiu Y, Xiao X, Cheng H, Zhou Z, Sheng GD. Influence of environmental factors on pesticide adsorption by black carbon: pH and model dissolved organic matter. Environ Sci Technol, 2009, 43: 4973-4978.

[52] Rhoades J, Manteghi NA, Shouse P, Alves W. Estimating soil salinity from saturated soil-paste electrical conductivity. Soil Sci Soc Am J, 1989, 53: 428-433.

[53] Rumpel C, Alexis M, Chabbi A, Chaplot V, Rasse DP, Valentin C, Mariotti A. Black carbon contribution to soil organic matter composition in tropical sloping land under slash and burn agriculture. Geoderma, 2006, 130: 35-46.

[54] Salek-Gilani S, Raiesi F, Tahmasebi P, Ghorbani N. Soil organic matter in restored rangelands following cessation of rainfed cropping in a mountainous semi-arid landscape. Nutr Cycl Agroecosyst, 2013, 96: 215-232.

[55] Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils, No. 60. USDA-NRCS, Washington, DC

[56] Soil Survey Staff (2014) Keys to soil taxonomy, 12th edn. USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, DC

[57] Soinne H, Hovi J, Tammeorg P, Turtola E. Effect of biochar on phosphorus sorption and clay soil aggregate stability. Geoderma, 2014, 219: 162-167.

[58] Somebroek W. Amounts, dynamics and sequestering of carbon in tropical and subtropical soils. Ambio, 1993, 22: 417-426.

[59] Steiner C, Teixeira WG, Lehmann J, Nehls T, de Macêdo JLV, Blum WE, Zech W. Long term effects of manure, charcoal and mineral fertilization on crop production and fertility on a highly weathered Central Amazonian upland soil. Plant Soil, 2007, 291: 275-290.

[60] Stolz C, Böhnke S, Grunert J. Reconstructing 2500 years of land use history on the Kemel Heath (Kemeler Heide), southern Rhenish Massif, Germany. Quat Sci J, 2012, 61(2): 169-183.

[61] Uchimiya M, Ohno T, He Z. Pyrolysis temperature-dependent release of dissolved organic carbon from plant, manure, and biorefinery wastes. J Anal Appl Pyrolysis, 2013, 104: 84-94.

[62] USDA and NRCS (2007) Statistix and user gide for the plant material program, 2007, version 2, pp 1–8

[63] Wardle DA, Nilsson M-C, Zackrisson O. Fire-derived charcoal causes loss of forest humus. Science, 2008, 320: 629.

[64] Wiedner K, Schneeweiß J, Dippold MA, Glaser B. Anthropogenic dark earth in Northern Germany—the Nordic Analogue to terra preta de Índio in Amazonia. CATENA, 2015, 132: 114-125.

[65] Wilson CA, Davidson DA, Cresser MS. Multi-element soil analysis: an assessment of its potential as an aid to archaeological interpretation. J Archaeo Sci, 2008, 35: 412-424.

[66] WRB (2014) World reference base for soil resources. World Soil Resources Report, 106. FAO, Rome, p 181

[67] Young M, Johnson J, Abrams M. Vegetative and edaphic characteristics on relic charcoal hearths in the Appalachian Mountains. Vegetation, 1996, 125: 43-50.