Does the presence of polychlorinated alkanes in plastic fruit stickers adhesive pose a threat to human health?

Abstract

Polychlorinated alkanes (PCAs) are widely used in products as adhesives. While the environmental and human health risks of PCAs are increasingly recognized, little attention has been paid to their presence in food-contact materials such as fruit stickers. This study represents the first investigation into PCA contamination in fruit stickers and their potential contribution to human dietary exposure. The ∑PCAs-C_10-21 concentrations ranged between 36 and 150 ng/sticker, with the highest contribution from PCAs-C_18-21. Specifically, Cl_1-2 congeners contributed most to ∑PCAs, resulting in low chlorine content in the fruit stickers, i.e. 33% ± 5%, 25% ± 3%, and 16% ± 2%, for PCAs-C_10-13, PCAs-C_14-17, and PCAs-C_18-21, respectively, in contrast to technical PCA mixtures, which are typically dominated by Cl_4-8 congeners. Preliminary tests suggested potential transfer of PCAs from stickers to fruits, with an estimated transfer rate of 23%-36% of ∑PCAs. The average human intake of PCAs via fruit sticker residues was estimated at 4.5 ng/day, with a worst-case scenario of 83 ng/day. The estimated daily intakes were 1-3 orders of magnitude lower than the exposure from other pathways, such as the ingestion of dust.

Keywords

Chlorinated paraffins / food adhesives / exposure pathways / persistent organic pollutants / sources identification

References

[1] Hou H,Liu X,Zhou Z.Occurrence and migration of phthalates in adhesive materials to fruits and vegetables.J Hazard Mater2021;418:126277

[2] Lassen C,Crookes M. Survey of Short-chain and medium chlorinated paraffins. Part of the LOUS-review. Environmental Project No. 1614, 2014. https://www2.mst.dk/Udgiv/publications/2014/11/978-87-93283-19-0.pdf. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[3] Yu X,Huang R.Chlorinated paraffins: a review of sample preparation, instrumental analysis, and occurrence and distribution in food samples.Environ Pollut2023;318:120875

[4] Chen C,Li L,Weber R.Distribution and emission estimation of short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in Chinese products through detection-based mass balancing.Environ Sci Technol2021;55:7335-43

[5] Smirnova YA,Persinen AA.Acryl compositions with chlorinated paraffin for electron beam–cured adhesives.High Energy Chem2004;38:425-7

[6] Vélez-Pagés T,Pastor-Blas MM.MEK wiping prior to chlorination to improve the adhesion of vulcanized SBR rubber containing paraffin wax.J Adhes Sci Technol2002;16:1765-80

[7] Guan X,Meng L.Novel biomonitoring method for determining five classes of legacy and alternative flame retardants in human serum samples.J Environ Sci2023;131:111-22

[8] Sun Q,Liu F.Accumulation of chlorinated paraffins in seafood from the Pearl River Estuary, China: implications for human and marine mammal health.J Environ Sci2026;166:511-9

[9] Darnerud PO.Chlorinated paraffin metabolism and its importance for understanding CP toxicity.J Environ Expo Assess2024;3:2

[10] UNEP. UNEP/POPS/POPRC.12/11/Add.3. Risk management evaluation on short-chain chlorinated paraffins. Report of the persistent organic pollutants review committee on the work of its twelfth meeting. 2016. https://chm.pops.int/default.aspx?tabid=5171. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[11] UNEP. UNEP/POPS/COP.12/32/Add.1. Decisions adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants at its twelfth meeting. https://chm.pops.int/Convention/ConferenceofthePartiesCOP/COPDecisions/tabid/208/Default.aspx. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[12] Zhao N,Zhang S,Ding L.Male renal functions are associated with serum short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in residents from Jinan, China.Environ Int2021;153:106514

[13] Huang X,Ding C.Differential accumulation of short-, medium-, and long-chain chlorinated paraffin in free-range laying hens from an e-waste recycling area.J Agric Food Chem2021;69:10329-37

[14] Tanzer M,Sly PD.Phthalates, bisphenols and per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances migration from food packaging into food: a systematic review.Rev Environ Health2025;40:616-25

[15] Wang C,Liang Y,Jiang G.Concentrations and congener profiles of chlorinated paraffins in domestic polymeric products in China.Environ Pollut2018;238:326-35

[16] Wang C,Liang Y.Migration of chlorinated paraffins from plastic food packaging into food simulants: concentrations and differences in congener profiles.Chemosphere2019;225:557-64

[17] Wu X,Cao J.Chlorinated paraffins in takeout food and its packaging in Beijing, China and dietary exposure risk.Environ Res2024;252:118768

[18] Zhou Y,Zhang Y,Xia Y.Exposure to emerging contaminants and health effects: a stealthy health challenge.Glob Environ Sci2026;2:128-44

[19] Vetter W,Schweizer S.Chlorinated paraffins in food contact materials made of rubber from the German market.Emerg Contam2023;9:100255

[20] European Union. Commission Regulation (EU) No 10/2011 of 14 January 2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food. 2011. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2011/10/oj/eng. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[21] U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Food packaging & other substances that come in contact with food - information for consumers. 2024. https://www.fda.gov/food/food-ingredients-packaging/food-packaging-other-substances-come-contact-food-information-consumers?trk=public_post_comment-text. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[22] Guida Y,Kajiwara N,Torres JPM.Inventory approach for short-chain chlorinated paraffins for the Stockholm Convention implementation in Brazil.Chemosphere2022;287:132344

[23] Xu C,Zheng M.Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in commercial rubber track products and raw materials.J Hazard Mater2019;380:120854

[24] He C,Brandsma S.Semiquantitative characterization of bromo-chloro paraffins and olefins in the Australian environment.Environ Sci Technol2022;56:12452-9

[25] Bogdal C,Diefenbacher PS,Berger U.Fast quantification of chlorinated paraffins in environmental samples by direct injection high-resolution mass spectrometry with pattern deconvolution.Anal Chem2015;87:2852-60

[26] Dirtu AC.Estimation of daily intake of organohalogenated contaminants from food consumption and indoor dust ingestion in Romania.Environ Sci Technol2010;44:6297-304

[27] World Health Organization. Chlorinated paraffins. 1996. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/41866. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[28] Brandsma SH,de Boer J.Chlorinated paraffins and tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate in spray polyurethane foams - a source for indoor exposure?.J Hazard Mater2021;416:125758

[29] Kutarna S,Diamond ML,Peng H.Widespread presence of chlorinated paraffins in consumer products.Environ Sci Processes Impacts2023;25:893-900

[30] McGrath TJ,Poma G.Concentrations and distribution of chlorinated paraffins in Belgian foods.Environ Pollut2021;291:118236

[31] Li H,Yang M.Dietary exposure and risk assessment of short-chain chlorinated paraffins in supermarket fresh products in Jinan, China.Chemosphere2020;244:125393

[32] Zhang Z,Ning C.Physicochemical properties dominating the behaviors of short/medium chain chlorinated paraffins in the atmosphere.J Hazard Mater2024;477:135335

[33] Canter N.Status of medium-and long-chain chlorinated paraffins.Tribol Lubr Technol2016;72:34-44https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299449458_Status_of_medium-_and_long-chain_Chlorinated_Paraffins. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[34] Yuan B,Sobek A.Temporal trends of C₈-C₃₆ chlorinated paraffins in Swedish coastal sediment cores over the past 80 years.Environ Sci Technol2017;51:14199-208

[35] Yuan B,Roos AM,Strid A.Long-chain chlorinated paraffins have reached the arctic.Environ Sci Technol Lett2021;8:753-9

[36] BfR. XXV. Hard paraffins, microcrystalline waxes and mixtures of these with waxes, resins and plastics. 2019. https://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/349/XXV-Hard-Paraffins--Microcrystalline-Waxes-and-Mixtures-of-these-with-Waxes--Resins-and-Plastics.pdf. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[37] Glüge J,Hungerbühler K,Bogdal C.Environmental risks of medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs): a review.Environ Sci Technol2018;52:6743-60

[38] Xin S,Wang Y.Identification of the released and transformed products during the thermal decomposition of a highly chlorinated paraffin.Environ Sci Technol2018;52:10153-62

[39] US Environmental Protection Agency. Toxicity Estimation Software Tool (TEST). Ver 4.1. EPA/600/C-12/006. 2012. https://www.epa.gov/comptox-tools/toxicity-estimation-software-tool-test. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[40] Australian Government, National Health and Medical Research Council. Australian guide to healthy eating. https://www.eatforhealth.gov.au/guidelines/australian-guide-healthy-eating. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[41] Apple and Pear Australia Ltd. Support for Growth. https://apal.org.au/programs/industry-data/industry-stats/. (accessed 2026-07-02)

[42] Yuan B,Padilla-Sánchez JA,Haug LS.Human exposure to chlorinated paraffins via inhalation and dust ingestion in a Norwegian cohort.Environ Sci Technol2021;55:1145-54 PMCID:PMC7880561

[43] Cui L,Zheng M.Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in foods from the sixth Chinese total diet study: occurrences and estimates of dietary intakes in South China.J Agric Food Chem2020;68:9043-51

[44] Wang P,Cui Y.Short-chain chlorinated paraffin (SCCP) pollution from a CP production plant in China: dispersion, congener patterns and health risk assessment.Chemosphere2018;211:456-64

[45] and Drug Administration, HHS. Current good manufacturing practice in manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for dietary supplements. Final rule.Fed Regist2007;72:34751-958