Bisphenol analogues in soils from four circular economy E-waste dismantling parks: emission characteristics and health risks

Abstract

Traditional electronic waste (E-waste) dismantling activities release substantial bisphenol analogues (BPs). In recent years, China has promoted the transformation of traditional E-waste dismantling parks into circular economy parks, yet the contamination characteristics of BPs under this new model remain poorly understood. In the present study, we systematically analyzed the pollution characteristics and health risks of 10 BPs in soils surrounding four circular economy E-waste parks [Ziya (ZY) in Tianjin, Fengjiang (FJ) and Binhai (BH) in Zhejiang, and Qingyuan (QY) in Guangdong]. The results showed that BPs were widely detected in soils surrounding the parks, with bisphenol A (BPA) accounting for 55%-77% of total concentrations, followed by tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) (6%-33%) and bisphenol F (BPF) (5%-14%). Significant inter-park heterogeneity was observed: FJ exhibited higher median BPA, BPF, and TBBPA than ZY (P < 0.05), while its BPF concentrations surpassed those in BH and QY (P < 0.05). Further correlation and principal component analyses revealed strong positive associations among BPA, BPF, and TBBPA (r = 0.638-0.873), which collectively loaded highly on PC1 (33%-52%), and their co-release mechanisms were closely related to the E-waste dismantling and incineration process. In addition, the spatial distribution of BPs showed a radial decline with each park as the core, suggesting potential health risks to surrounding populations. Risk assessment using estimated daily intake showed that BPA exposures exceeded the European Food Safety Authority’s updated tolerable daily intake. Monte Carlo simulation indicated that 97%, 60%, 80%, 25%, and 15% of the population were at risk of non-carcinogenic effects from BPA, BPF, bisphenol AF, bisphenol S, and bisphenol AP, respectively.

Keywords

Bisphenol analogues / E-waste dismantling park / soil / risk assessment

References

[1] Zhang K,Zeng EY.E-waste recycling: where does it go from here?.Environ Sci Technol2012;46:10861-7

[2] Xu X,Boezen HM.E-waste environmental contamination and harm to public health in China.Front Med2015;9:220-8

[3] Huang S,Qi Z,Li G.A large-scale nationwide study of urinary phenols in the Chinese population.Sci Total Environ2023;894:164850

[4] Luo D,Zeng L,Li J.Occurrence of multiple bisphenol S derivatives in breast milk from Chinese lactating women and implications for exposure in breast-fed infants.Environ Sci Technol Lett2021;8:176-82

[5] Zhang T,Gao CZ.Urinary concentrations of bisphenols and their association with biomarkers of oxidative stress in people living near E-waste recycling facilities in China.Environ Sci Technol2016;50:4045-53

[6] Du B,Chen H.Beyond traditional organophosphate triesters: prevalence of emerging organophosphate triesters and organophosphate diesters in indoor dust from a mega E-waste Recycling Industrial Park in South China.Environ Sci Technol2020;54:12001-12

[7] Lu S,Ge X.The internal exposure of phthalate metabolites and bisphenols in waste incineration plant workers and the associated health risks.Environ Int2020;145:106101

[8] Wu Y,Kang D.Tetrabromobisphenol A and heavy metal exposure via dust ingestion in an E-waste recycling region in Southeast China.Sci Total Environ2016;541:356-64

[9] Fu P.Ubiquity of bisphenol A in the atmosphere.Environ Pollut2010;158:3138-43

[10] Owens, C.V. Jr; Lambright, C.; Bobseine, K.; et al. Identification of estrogenic compounds emitted from the combustion of computer printed circuit boards in electronic waste.Environ Sci Technol2007;41:8506-11

[11] Pan Y,Wei X,Zeng L.Bisphenol and analogues in indoor dust from E-waste recycling sites, neighboring residential homes, and urban residential homes: implications for human exposure.Sci Total Environ2024;907:168012

[12] Chen D,Tan H.Bisphenol analogues other than BPA: environmental occurrence, human exposure, and toxicity - a review.Environ Sci Technol2016;50:5438-53

[13] Bittner GD,Stoner MA.Estrogenic chemicals often leach from BPA-free plastic products that are replacements for BPA-containing polycarbonate products.Environ Health2014;13:41 PMCID:PMC4063249

[14] Zeng K,Liu L.A typical derivative and byproduct of tetrabromobisphenol A: development of novel high-throughput immunoassays and systematic investigation of their distributions in Taizhou, an e-waste recycling area in eastern China.Environ Pollut2020;263:114382

[15] Czarny-Krzymińska K,Szczukocki D.Bisphenol A and its substitutes in the aquatic environment: occurrence and toxicity assessment.Chemosphere2023;315:137763

[16] Yu Y,Xiang M,Kuang H.Potential obesogenic effects of TBBPA and its alternatives TBBPS and TCBPA revealed by metabolic perturbations in human hepatoma cells.Sci Total Environ2022;832:154847

[17] Li X,Liu Y,Wang L.First evidence of occupational and residential exposure to bisphenols associated with an E-waste dismantling site: a case study in China.Ecotoxicol Environ Saf2023;263:115206

[18] Pal S,Verma R.BPS-induced ovarian dysfunction: protective actions of melatonin via modulation of SIRT-1/Nrf2/NFĸB and IR/PI3K/pAkt/GLUT-4 expressions in adult golden hamster.J Pineal Res2023;75:e12869

[19] Duan Y,Wang B.Association of urinary concentrations of bisphenols with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a case-control study.Environ Pollut2018;243:1719-26

[20] Kim JI,Shin CH,Kim BN.Association of bisphenol A, bisphenol F, and bisphenol S with ADHD symptoms in children.Environ Int2022;161:107093

[21] GB 17378.2-2007. The specification for marine monitoring - Part 2: Data processing and quality control of analysis. 2007. https://codeofchina.com/standard/GB17378.2-2007.html. (accessed 11 Oct 2025)

[22] Weng CY,Zhu FJ,Ma WL.National investigation of bisphenols in the surface soil in China.Sci Total Environ2024;956:177319

[23] Yang X,Zheng G.Bisphenol analogues in soils and lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) around typical factories in eastern China: occurrence, contamination characteristics, and health risks.Environ Pollut2025;373:126126

[24] Song S,Wang T,Jiang G.Distribution and preliminary exposure assessment of bisphenol AF (BPAF) in various environmental matrices around a manufacturing plant in China.Environ Sci Technol2012;46:13136-43

[25] Brand E,Lijzen JPA. CSOIL 2000: an exposure model for human risk assessment of soil contamination: a model description. 2007. https://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/711701054.pdf. (accessed 11 Oct 2025)

[26] United States Environmental Protection Agency. Integrated risk information system. Bisphenol A. CASRN 80-05-7 | DTXSID7020182. https://iris.epa.gov/ChemicalLanding/&substance_nmbr=356. (accessed 11 Oct 2025)

[27] EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes, Flavourings and Processing Aids (CEF). Scientific opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of bisphenol a (BPA) in foodstuffs. Part II - BPA oxicological assessment and risk characterisation.EFSA J2015;13:3978

[28] EFSA Panel on Food Contact Materials, Enzymes and Processing Aids (CEP); Lambré, C.; Barat Baviera, J. M.; Bolognesi, C.; et al. Re-evaluation of the risks to public health related to the presence of bisphenol a (BPA) in foodstuffs. EFSA J. 2023, 21, 6857.

[29] Cao J,Gao Y,Yu Y.Derivation of the oral reference dose (RfD) for bisphenol S and bisphenol F based on epidemiological and experimental studies.Ecotoxicol Environ Saf2025;293:118045

[30] Xia Y,Cao J,Yu Y.Oral reference dose (RfD) derivation for five bisphenol A alternatives integrating BMD and NOAEL/LOAEL approaches.Ecotoxicol Environ Saf2025;303:118911

[31] Liu K,Yan S,Li Y.A review of status of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) in China.Chemosphere2016;148:8-20

[32] Ge X,Huo Y.Mixed bromine/chlorine transformation products of tetrabromobisphenol A: potential specific molecular markers in E-waste dismantling areas.J Hazard Mater2022;423:127126

[33] Fu J,Wang T.Influence of E-waste dismantling and its regulations: temporal trend, spatial distribution of heavy metals in rice grains, and its potential health risk.Environ Sci Technol2013;47:7437-45

[34] Zhao L,Wang S.Bisphenol chemicals in surface soil from E-waste dismantling facilities and the surrounding areas: spatial distribution and health risk.Toxics2024;12:379 PMCID:PMC11209086

[35] Huang DY,Liu CP.Characteristics, sources, and transport of tetrabromobisphenol A and bisphenol A in soils from a typical e-waste recycling area in South China.Environ Sci Pollut Res Int2014;21:5818-26

[36] Wei D,Ai F.Occurrence, spatial distributions, and temporal trends of bisphenol analogues in an E-waste dismantling area: implications for risk assessment.Sci Total Environ2023;867:161498

[37] Wu Z,Xie M,Li Y.Occurrence and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in soils from an E-waste recycling area in northern China.Ecotoxicol Environ Saf2019;167:467-75

[38] Qiu W,Chen H.The comparative toxicities of BPA, BPB, BPS, BPF, and BPAF on the reproductive neuroendocrine system of zebrafish embryos and its mechanisms.J Hazard Mater2021;406:124303

[39] Hyun M,Kim HJ.Comparative toxicities of BPA, BPS, BPF, and TMBPF in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and mammalian fibroblast cells.Toxicology2021;461:152924

[40] Zhang Z,Cho HS.Urinary bisphenol A concentrations and their implications for human exposure in several Asian countries.Environ Sci Technol2011;45:7044-50

[41] Larsson K,Jönsson BA.Phthalates, non-phthalate plasticizers and bisphenols in Swedish preschool dust in relation to children’s exposure.Environ Int2017;102:114-24