Microplastics and nanoplastics in drinking water and beverages: occurrence and human exposure

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics have gained significant attention as emerging environmental pollutants due to their widespread presence and potential health risks. In recent years, these contaminants have been frequently detected in drinking water and various beverages, prompting concern about their sources and effects. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the occurrence of MPs in drinking water and beverages and exposure assessments. MP concentrations in drinking water vary significantly across countries and regions, influenced by diverse factors such as the efficiency of water treatment plants, the level of pollution in water sources, and the condition of transportation pipelines. Another critical aspect discussed in this review is the assessment of human exposure to MPs. Similarly, the daily intake of MPs shows significant variation across different countries and regions. Beyond the concentration of MPs in drinking water, an equally important factor is the quantity of water consumed, which can differ by as much as two orders of magnitude between studies. These variations in water consumption are a key focus of this article, as they greatly influence the estimation of human MP exposure. Furthermore, it discusses the limitations of current research, emphasizes gaps in understanding nanoplastics, and outlines potential future research directions.

Keywords

Microplastics / nanoplastics / tap water / bottled water / beverages / human exposure

References

[1] Thompson RC,Boucher J,Raubenheimer K.Twenty years of microplastic pollution research-what have we learned?.Science2024;386:eadl2746

[2] Thompson RC,Mitchell RP.Lost at sea: where is all the plastic?.Science2004;304:838

[3] Hartmann NB,Thompson RC.Are we speaking the same language? Recommendations for a definition and categorization framework for plastic debris.Environ Sci Technol2019;53:1039-47

[4] Lim X.Microplastics are everywhere - but are they harmful?.Nature2021;593:22-5

[5] Liu C,Zhang Y.Widespread distribution of PET and PC microplastics in dust in urban China and their estimated human exposure.Environ Int2019;128:116-24

[6] Peeken I,Beyer B.Arctic sea ice is an important temporal sink and means of transport for microplastic.Nat Commun2018;9:1505 PMCID:PMC5915590

[7] Zhang J,Kannan K.Microplastics in house dust from 12 countries and associated human exposure.Environ Int2020;134:105314

[8] Yang L,Wang Z.Microplastic characteristic in the soil across the Tibetan Plateau.Sci Total Environ2022;828:154518

[9] Revell LE,Le Ru EC,Gaw S.Direct radiative effects of airborne microplastics.Nature2021;598:462-7

[10] Jiang H,Wang L,Wang H.A review of disposable facemasks during the COVID-19 pandemic: a focus on microplastics release.Chemosphere2023;312:137178 PMCID:PMC9640709

[11] Kozlov M.Landmark study links microplastics to serious health problems. Nature 2024.

[12] Shi X,Gao M.Combined exposure of emamectin benzoate and microplastics induces tight junction disorder, immune disorder and inflammation in carp midgut via lysosome/ROS/ferroptosis pathway.Water Res2024;257:121660

[13] Zhang J,Trasande L.Occurrence of polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate microplastics in infant and adult feces.Environ Sci Technol Lett2021;8:989-94

[14] Sun J,Wang T,Sun J.Detection and quantification of various microplastics in human endometrium based on laser direct infrared spectroscopy.Sci Total Environ2024;906:167760

[15] Liu S,Liu X.Detection of various microplastics in placentas, meconium, infant feces, breastmilk and infant formula: a pilot prospective study.Sci Total Environ2023;854:158699

[16] Zhu L,Zuo R,Qian Y.Identification of microplastics in human placenta using laser direct infrared spectroscopy.Sci Total Environ2023;856:159060

[17] Zhang D,Liu Y.Microplastics are detected in human gallstones and have the ability to form large cholesterol-microplastic heteroaggregates.J Hazard Mater2024;467:133631

[18] Guo X,Wang X.Discovery and analysis of microplastics in human bone marrow.J Hazard Mater2024;477:135266

[19] Xu H,Yu Z.Detection and analysis of microplastics in tissues and blood of human cervical cancer patients.Environ Res2024;259:119498

[20] Marfella R,Sardu C.Microplastics and nanoplastics in atheromas and cardiovascular events.N Engl J Med2024;390:900-10 PMCID:PMC11009876

[21] Yang Z,Feng Z.Human microplastics exposure and potential health risks to target organs by different routes: a review.Curr Pollution Rep2023;9:468-85

[22] Zuri G,Lacorte S.Microplastics: Human exposure assessment through air, water, and food.Environ Int2023;179:108150

[23] Yee MS,Looi CK.Impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on human health.Nanomaterials2021;11:496 PMCID:PMC7920297

[24] Cox KD,Davies HL,Juanes F.Human consumption of microplastics.Environ Sci Technol2019;53:7068-74

[25] Oßmann BE.Microplastics in drinking water? Present state of knowledge and open questions.Curr Opin Food Sci2021;41:44-51

[26] Luo S,de Mello JC.Detection of environmental nanoplastics via surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy using high-density, ring-shaped nanogap arrays.Front Bioeng Biotechnol2023;11:1242797 PMCID:PMC10628472

[27] Maharjan KK.Microplastic pollution in bottled water: a systematic review. Int J Environ Sci Technol 2024.

[28] Menon V,Gupta S.Prevalence and implications of microplastics in potable water system: an update.Chemosphere2023;317:137848

[29] Dafne LRSL,Geraldine RVA,Carlos ÁZJ.Identification, quantification, and presence of microplastics and nanoplastics in beverages around the world. In: Inamuddin, Altalhi T, Fernandes VC, editors. Toxic effects of micro‐ and nanoplastics. Wiley; 2024. pp. 139-62.

[30] Shruti VC,Elizalde-Martínez I.Toward a unified framework for investigating micro(nano)plastics in packaged beverages intended for human consumption.Environ Pollut2021;268:115811

[31] Mandloi A. Nanoplastics in drinking Water. 2020; pp. 278. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350734917_Industrial_People_Management_Volume-IV. [Last accessed on 29 Nov 2024]

[32] Belz S,Geiss O.Analytical methods to measure microplastics in drinking water. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. 2024.

[33] Adediran GA,Jürgens MD.Fate and behaviour of Microplastics (> 25µm) within the water distribution network, from water treatment works to service reservoirs and customer taps.Water Res2024;255:121508

[34] Chowdhury SR,Hassan I,Hossain MM.Microplastics in freshwater and drinking water: sources, impacts, detection, and removal strategies.Water Air Soil Pollut2023;234:6677

[35] Cecilia D, Philipp M, Kaegi R, Schirmer M, Moeck C. Microplastics attenuation from surface water to drinking water: Impact of treatment and managed aquifer recharge - and identification uncertainties.Sci Total Environ2024;908:168378

[36] Pratesi CB,Cutrim Paz GS.Presence and quantification of microplastic in urban tap water: a pre-screenng in Brasilia, Brazil.Sustainability2021;13:6404

[37] Ramaremisa G,Saad D.Detection and characterisation of microplastics in tap water from Gauteng, South Africa.Chemosphere2024;356:141903

[38] Wibuloutai J,Khiewkhern S,Prathumchai N.Microplastics and nanoplastics contamination in raw and treated water.Water Supply2023;23:2267-82

[39] Kosuth M,Wattenberg EV.Anthropogenic contamination of tap water, beer, and sea salt.PLoS One2018;13:e0194970 PMCID:PMC5895013

[40] Tong H,Hu X.Occurrence and identification of microplastics in tap water from China.Chemosphere2020;252:126493

[41] Kankanige D.Identification of micro-plastics (MPs) in conventional tap water sourced from Thailand.J Eng Technol Sci2020;52:95-107

[42] Bäuerlein PS,Pieke EN.Fate of microplastics in the drinking water production.Water Res2022;221:118790

[43] Taghipour H,Ganji F,Azizi N.Tracking microplastics contamination in drinking water in Zahedan, Iran: from source to consumption taps.Sci Total Environ2023;872:162121

[44] Islam MS,Jamal AHMSIM,Beauty SA.Removal efficiencies of microplastics of the three largest drinking water treatment plants in Bangladesh.Sci Total Environ2023;895:165155

[45] Maurizi L,Kirstein IV,Vollertsen J.Do drinking water plants retain microplastics? An exploratory study using Raman micro-spectroscopy.Heliyon2023;9:e17113 PMCID:PMC10361326

[46] Zhang M,Ding H.Distribution characteristics and influencing factors of microplastics in urban tap water and water sources in Qingdao, China.Anal Lett2020;53:1312-27

[47] Han Z,Xia J,Cui C.Occurrence and fate of microplastics from a water source to two different drinking water treatment plants in a megacity in eastern China.Environ Pollut2024;346:123546

[48] Ferraz M,Valiati VH.Microplastic concentrations in raw and drinking water in the Sinos River, Southern Brazil.Water2020;12:3115

[49] Xu Y,Wang X,Liu G.Mass concentration and removal characteristics of microplastics and nanoplastics in a drinking water treatment plant.ACS EST Water2024;4:3348-58

[50] Swanepoel, Hein du Preez, Henk Bouwman. A baseline study on the prevalence of microplastics in South African drinking water: from source to distribution.WSA2023;49:

[51] Velasco A, Ramseier Gentile S, Zimmermann S, Le Coustumer P, Stoll S. Contamination and removal efficiency of microplastics and synthetic fibres in a conventional drinking water treatment plant in Geneva, Switzerland.Sci Total Environ2023;880:163270

[52] Sun X,An L.Microplastic transportation in a typical drinking water supply: from raw water to household water.Water2024;16:1567

[53] Shen M,Wen X.Presence of microplastics in drinking water from freshwater sources: the investigation in Changsha, China.Environ Sci Pollut Res Int2021;28:42313-24

[54] Yang X,Zhou Y,Shen C.Longitudinal and vertical distribution of microplastics in various pipe scales in an operating drinking water distribution system.J Hazard Mater2023;459:132108

[55] Ratnasari A,Hadibarata T,Sharma S.The crucial nexus of microplastics on ecosystem and climate change: types, source, impacts, and transport.Water Air Soil Pollut2024;235:7103

[56] Li Y,Qin L.Occurrence and distribution characteristics of microplastics in surface water of China: a review.Water Air Soil Pollut2024;235:6850

[57] Issac MN.Effect of microplastics in water and aquatic systems.Environ Sci Pollut Res Int2021;28:19544-62 PMCID:PMC7924819

[58] Altunışık A.Microplastic pollution and human risk assessment in Turkish bottled natural and mineral waters.Environ Sci Pollut Res Int2023;30:39815-25

[59] Gálvez-Blanca V,González-Pleiter M,Leganés F.Microplastics and non-natural cellulosic particles in Spanish bottled drinking water.Sci Rep2024;14:11089 PMCID:PMC11096351

[60] Hossain MB,Banik P.First evidence of microplastics and their characterization in bottled drinking water from a developing country.Front Environ Sci2023;11:1232931

[61] Oßmann BE,Holtmannspötter H,Christiansen SH.Small-sized microplastics and pigmented particles in bottled mineral water.Water Res2018;141:307-16

[62] Zuccarello P,Cristaldi A.Exposure to microplastics (<10 μm) associated to plastic bottles mineral water consumption: the first quantitative study.Water Res2019;157:365-71

[63] Kankanige D.Smaller-sized micro-plastics (MPs) contamination in single-use PET-bottled water in Thailand.Sci Total Environ2020;717:137232

[64] Li H,Ma M,An L.Occurrence of microplastics in commercially sold bottled water.Sci Total Environ2023;867:161553

[65] Zhou X,Li H,Hua-jiang .Microplastic pollution of bottled water in China.J Water Process Eng2021;40:101884

[66] Polychronopoulos ND.On the origin of microplastics in bottled water.AIP Conf Proc2023;2884:180001

[67] Schymanski D,Humpf HU.Analysis of microplastics in water by micro-Raman spectroscopy: release of plastic particles from different packaging into mineral water.Water Res2018;129:154-62

[68] Li Y,Fu J,Wang G.A microscopic survey on microplastics in beverages: the case of beer, mineral water and tea.Analyst2022;147:1099-105

[69] Wang Y.Assessing microplastic contamination in soda beverages: a multi-city, multi-container laser direct infrared spectroscopy study.Heliyon2024;10:e32805 PMCID:PMC11341343

[70] Basaran B,Kanbur ED.Microplastics in honey from Türkiye: occurrence, characteristic, human exposure, and risk assessment.J Food Compos Anal2024;135:106646

[71] Pham DT,Lee SH.Analysis of microplastics in various foods and assessment of aggregate human exposure via food consumption in korea.Environ Pollut2023;322:121153

[72] Zhou X,Wang J,Ren J.Quantification of microplastics in plastic-bottled Chinese Baijiu using micro-FTIR in imaging mode.Appl Sci2023;13:11142

[73] Shruti VC,Elizalde-Martínez I.First study of its kind on the microplastic contamination of soft drinks, cold tea and energy drinks - future research and environmental considerations.Sci Total Environ2020;726:138580

[74] Visentin E,Niero G.Characterization of microplastics in skim-milk powders.J Dairy Sci2024;107:5393-401

[75] Li Y,Guan B.Separation and identification of nanoplastics in tap water.Environ Res2022;204:112134

[76] Zhang J,Lian E.Identification of poly(ethylene terephthalate) nanoplastics in commercially bottled drinking water using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy.Environ Sci Technol2023;57:8365-72 PMCID:PMC10249414

[77] Qian N,Lang X.Rapid single-particle chemical imaging of nanoplastics by SRS microscopy.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2024;121:e2300582121 PMCID:PMC10801917

[78] Zhou G,Wei XF.Tracing microplastics in rural drinking water in Chongqing, China: Their presence and pathways from source to tap.J Hazard Mater2023;459:132206

[79] Paray BA,Sultana S.Contamination, morphological and chemical characterization, and hazard risk analyses of microplastics in drinking water sourced from groundwater in a developing nation.Front Environ Sci2024;12:1379311

[80] Tse YT,Sze ET.Quantitative assessment of full size microplastics in bottled and tap water samples in Hong Kong.Int J Environ Res Public Health2022;19:13432 PMCID:PMC9602710

[81] Almaiman L,Bineid M.The occurrence and dietary intake related to the presence of microplastics in drinking water in Saudi Arabia.Environ Monit Assess2021;193:390

[82] Crosta A,De Felice B.Microplastics contamination in nonalcoholic beverages from the Italian market.Int J Environ Res Public Health2023;20:4122 PMCID:PMC10002432

[83] Atugoda T,Wijesekara H.Nanoplastic occurrence, transformation and toxicity: a review.Environ Chem Lett2023;21:363-81

[84] Li X.Perspectives on the toxic effects of micro- and nanoplastics on the environment: a bibliometric analysis of the 2014 to 2023 period.Toxics2024;12:676 PMCID:PMC11435707

[85] Guelinckx I,Moreno LA.Intake of water and different beverages in adults across 13 countries.Eur J Nutr2015;54 Suppl 2:45-55 PMCID:PMC4473281

[86] Basaran B,Şentürk Y,Akçay HT.Microplastic contamination in some beverages marketed in türkiye: characteristics, dietary exposure and risk assessment.Food Chem Toxicol2024;189:114730

[87] Socas-Hernández C,González-Sálamo J,Coscollà C.Assessment of anthropogenic particles content in commercial beverages.Food Chem2024;447:139002

[88] Altunışık A.Prevalence of microplastics in commercially sold soft drinks and human risk assessment.J Environ Manage2023;336:117720

[89] Lam TWL,Fok L.Human exposure to microplastics via the consumption of nonalcoholic beverages in various packaging materials: the case of Hong Kong.J Hazard Mater2024;472:134575

[90] Basaran B,Akcay HT.Microplastics in branded milk: dietary exposure and risk assessment.J Food Compos Anal2023;123:105611

[91] Kiruba R,Aganasteen R.Identification of microplastics as emerging contaminant in branded milk of Tamil Nadu State, India.Asian J Biol Life Sci2022;11:181-7

[92] Zhang Q,Jiang Y.Microplastics in infant milk powder.Environ Pollut2023;323:121225

[93] Da Costa Filho PA,Eriksen B.Detection and characterization of small-sized microplastics (≥ 5 µm) in milk products.Sci Rep2021;11:24046 PMCID:PMC8674347