Occurrence of DDT in foodstuffs and skin wipes from a rural area, South China: insight into human exposure pathway

Abstract

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) are ubiquitous in dust and air, which may be responsible for human dermal exposure to DDT. However, existing DDT exposure studies mainly concentrate on dietary exposure, and studies on skin exposure pathway are lacking. To gain further insight into the human exposure pathway of DDT, skin wipe and food samples were collected in a rural area in southern China, where new input of DDTs was found in both indoor and outdoor environments. The total DDT concentrations in skin wipes and foodstuffs varied from < method quantification limit (MQL) to 1470 ng/m² and from < MQL to 12.8 ng/g wet weight, respectively. In foodstuffs, egg showed the highest DDT concentration, while forehead showed the highest DDT concentration in the four skin locations. p,p’-DDT was predominant in the hand and forearm wipes, while p,p’-DDE was dominant in the forehead, upper arm, and food samples. The total DDT daily absorption median levels via dermal contact, hand-mouth contact, and food consumption were 0.187, 0.0237, and 0.994 ng/kg/d, respectively. Organic eggs and wild fish contaminated by DDTs released locally are the main sources of human dietary exposure to DDTs, and reducing the intake of contaminated fish and eggs would help to significantly reduce human DDT absorption; in this case, the contribution of dermal exposure cannot be not negligible.

Keywords

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) / dermal exposure / dietary ingestion / foodstuffs / skin wipes

References

[1] Lin BG,Chen XC.Effects of organochlorine exposure on male reproductive disorders in an electronic waste area of South China.Environ Int2021;147:106318

[2] Taiwo AM.A review of environmental and health effects of organochlorine pesticide residues in Africa.Chemosphere2019;220:1126-40

[3] Song L,Jin X.The organochlorine p,p′-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane induces colorectal cancer growth through Wnt/β-catenin signaling.Toxicol Lett2014;229:284-91

[4] Mrema EJ,Brambilla G,Tsatsakis AM.Persistent organochlorinated pesticides and mechanisms of their toxicity.Toxicology2013;307:74-88

[5] Audouze K.Application of computational systems biology to explore environmental toxicity hazards.Environ Health Perspect2011;119:1754-9. PMCID:PMC3261980

[6] Cohn BA,Cirillo PM.DDT and breast cancer in young women: new data on the significance of age at exposure.Environ Health Perspect2007;115:1406-14 PMCID:PMC2022666

[7] Tian L,Zhao S.DDT, Chlordane, and hexachlorobenzene in the air of the pearl river delta revisited: a tale of source, history, and monsoon.Environ Sci Technol2021;55:9740-9

[8] He CT,Wang MH.Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethanes (DDTs) in human hair and serum in rural and urban areas in South China.Environ Res2017;155:279-86.

[9] Dimitriadou L,Covaci A.Levels and profiles of brominated and chlorinated contaminants in human breast milk from Thessaloniki, Greece.Sci Total Environ2016;539:350-8

[10] Yu Y,Zhang X.Route-specific daily uptake of organochlorine pesticides in food, dust, and air by Shanghai residents, China.Environ Int2012;50:31-7.

[11] Qiu X.Using the o,p′-DDT/p,p′-DDT ratio to identify DDT sources in China.Chemosphere2010;81:1033-8

[12] Fazal A,Naeem I.Exposure assessment of selected pesticide residues using occurrence data in foods and serum samples in Pakistan.Food Sci Technol2022;42:e01222

[13] Fan X,Li Y,Fan W.Estimating the dietary exposure and risk of persistent organic pollutants in China: a national analysis.Environ Pollut2021;288:117764

[14] Sosan MB,Oyekunle JAO.Dietary risk assessment of organochlorine pesticide residues in maize-based complementary breakfast food products in Nigeria.Heliyon2020;6:e05803 PMCID:PMC7770536

[15] Lv YZ,Li QQ,Zeng YH.A new insight into the emission source of DDT in indoor environment from rural area of South China and comprehensive human health exposure assessment.Environ Sci Pollut Res2023;30:35189-99

[16] Cao Z,Zhu C.Halogenated organic pollutant residuals in human bared and clothing-covered skin areas: source differentiation and comprehensive health risk assessment.Environ Sci Technol2019;53:14700-8

[17] Liu X,Cao Z.Estimation of human exposure to halogenated flame retardants through dermal adsorption by skin wipe.Chemosphere2017;168:272-8.

[18] Weschler CJ.Dermal uptake of organic vapors commonly found in indoor air.Environ Sci Technol2014;48:1230-7

[19] Weschler CJ.SVOC exposure indoors: fresh look at dermal pathways.Indoor Air2012;22:356-77

[20] Aslam I,Qadir A.Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in air-conditioner filter dust of indoor urban setting: Implication for health risk in a developing country.Indoor Air2021;31:807-17

[21] Yadav IC,Li J.Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorines pesticides in indoor dust: An exploration of sources and health exposure risk in a rural area (Kopawa) of Nepal.Ecotoxicol Environ Saf2020;195:110376

[22] Fan Y,Wang Z.Identifying dermal exposure as the dominant pathway of children's exposure to flame retardants in kindergartens.Sci Total Environ2022;808:152004

[23] Abdallah MA.Dermal contact with furniture fabrics is a significant pathway of human exposure to brominated flame retardants.Environ Int2018;118:26-33

[24] Weschler CJ.Semivolatile organic compounds in indoor environments.Atmos Environ2008;42:9018-40.

[25] USEPA. Dermal exposure assessment: principles and applications. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (EPA/600/8-91/011B). Available from: https://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/30001L2F.TXT?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&Index=1991+Thru+1994&Docs=&Query=&Time=&EndTime=&SearchMethod=1&TocRestrict=n&Toc=&TocEntry=&QField=&QFieldYear=&QFieldMonth=&QFieldDay=&IntQFieldOp=0&ExtQFieldOp=0&XmlQuery=&File=D%3A%5Czyfiles%5CIndex%20Data%5C91thru94%5CTxt%5C00000001%5C30001L2F.txt&User=ANONYMOUS&Password=anonymous&SortMethod=h%7C-&MaximumDocuments=1&FuzzyDegree=0&ImageQuality=r75g8/r75g8/x150y150g16/i425&Display=hpfr&DefSeekPage=x&SearchBack=ZyActionL&Back=ZyActionS&BackDesc=Results%20page&MaximumPages=1&ZyEntry=1&SeekPage=x&ZyPURL [Last accessed on 28 Jun 2023].

[26] Liu X,Yu G.Estimation of exposure to organic flame retardants via hand wipe, surface wipe, and dust: comparability of different assessment strategies.Environ Sci Technol2018;52:9946-53

[27] Hoffman K,Birnbaum LS.Monitoring indoor exposure to organophosphate flame retardants: hand wipes and house dust.Environ Health Perspect2015;123:160-5 PMCID:PMC4314253

[28] Guo J,Yang Y,Zeng Y.Age-and sex-specific dermal exposure of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the general population of a city in south China.Environ Pollut2022;310:119802

[29] Liu X,Cao Z.Occurrence of organophosphorus flame retardants on skin wipes: Insight into human exposure from dermal absorption.Environ Int2017;98:113-9.

[30] Liu Y,Huang LQ,Mai BX.Bioaccumulation of persistent halogenated organic pollutants in insects: common alterations to the pollutant pattern for different insects during metamorphosis.Environ Sci Technol2018;52:5145-53

[31] Wang Z,Chen XM. Estimates of the exposed dermal surface area of Chinese in view of human health risk assessment. J Saf Environ 2008;8:152-6. Available from: https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/article/abstract?v=6BdpzueOwTGrw4Sv0pmGUv9oyi3lXQiN0VHQGbHJdDwOCkVgGsMihBdBSeZAPbfZurrGdPQXQ0bfLf7Yd9Y-YlvFpC2--kor6ZgLzmQkF8Lbs5xBP_oGZQ==&uniplatform=NZKPT&language=gb [Last accessed on 30 Jun 2023].

[32] Nazzaro-Porro M,Boniforti L.Effects of aging on fatty acids in skin surface lipids.J Invest Dermatol1979;73:112-7

[33] Stapleton HM,Allen JG,Webster TF.Measurement of polybrominated diphenyl ethers on hand wipes: estimating exposure from hand-to-mouth contact.Environ Sci Technol2008;42:3329-34

[34] Moser GA.The influence of dietary concentration on the absorption and excretion of persistent lipophilic organic pollutants in the human intestinal tract.Chemosphere2001;45:201-11

[35] Kim BR,Kim SA.Sebum secretion of the trunk and the development of truncal acne in women: do truncal acne and sebum affect each other?.Dermatology2015;231:87-93

[36] Pura A,Malers J.Adsorption of organic compounds found in human sebum on latvian illitic, kaolinitic, and chloritic phyllosilicates.Clays Clay Miner2014;62:500-7

[37] Papadopoulou E,Collins CD.Sampling strategy for estimating human exposure pathways to consumer chemicals.Emerging Contaminants2016;2:26-36

[38] Tao S,Li XQ.Organochlorine pesticide residuals in chickens and eggs at a poultry farm in Beijing, China.Environ Pollut2009;157:497-502.

[39] Zhou P,Li J.Dietary exposure to persistent organochlorine pesticides in 2007 Chinese total diet study.Environ Int2012;42:152-9.

[40] Wang X,Wang B.Risk of dietary intake of organochlorine pesticides among the childbearing-age women: A multiple follow-up study in North China.Ecotoxicol Environ Saf2021;224:112607

[41] Galani YJH,Wumbei A.Contamination of foods from cameroon with residues of 20 halogenated pesticides, and health risk of adult human dietary exposure.Int J Environ Res Public Health2021;18:5043 PMCID:PMC8126213

[42] Frederiksen M,Jensen NM.Dermal uptake and percutaneous penetration of ten flame retardants in a human skin ex vivo model.Chemosphere2016;162:308-14

[43] Xu F,Covaci A.Assessment of dietary exposure to organohalogen contaminants, legacy and emerging flame retardants in a Norwegian cohort.Environ Int2017;102:236-43

[44] Yu YX,Zhang XY.Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in food and associated human daily intake assessment considering bioaccessibility measured by simulated gastrointestinal digestion.Chemosphere2011;83:152-60.