Some Insects Are More Equal Than Others: A Comparison of Popular Large Language Model Chatbots' Treatment of Different Insect Groups

Abstract

Bees and butterflies are generally viewed positively in society, whereas other insects, such as wasps or flies, are often underappreciated despite their essential ecological roles. As biodiversity loss continues to pose a major challenge for humankind, it necessitates a re-evaluation of these biases to support the protection of biodiversity as a whole. With large language model (LLM) chatbots becoming increasingly integrated into daily life for information dissemination and education purposes, understanding their inherent biases is vital. In this study, we tested 10 popular Western LLM chatbots using simple prompts to assess how they portray bees and wasps. Butterflies, moths, flies, and mosquitoes were also included for comparison to evaluate broader societal perceptions. Our results show that bees and butterflies are indeed depicted positively by the LLM chatbots and moths somewhat positively, while wasps, flies, and mosquitoes are associated with more negative portrayals. We found that LLMs mirror prevailing human biases toward different insect groups and their perceived importance in nature conservation. Moreover, we demonstrate that LLM chatbots tend to oversimplify insect diversity by predominantly restricting “bees” to honeybees and “wasps” to yellowjackets, thereby neglecting the broader biodiversity that includes wild bees and parasitoid wasps. The chatbots also appeared to favor Nearctic species when recommending conservation priorities. By highlighting these biases and discussing their implications, our research underscores the importance of nuanced science communication and expert involvement in decision-making for nature conservation. Addressing such biases is essential to prevent the reinforcement of public misconceptions and to promote the protection of ecologically indispensable yet less popular insect groups.

Keywords

Aculeata / bias / biodiversity / Diptera / ecosystem / generative artificial intelligence / Hymenoptera / Lepidoptera / Nearctic

References

[1] Adler, P. H., and G. W. Courtney. 2019. “Ecological and Societal Services of Aquatic Diptera.” Insects 10, no. 3: 70. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects10030070.

[2] Aguiar, A. P., A. R. Deans, M. S. Engel, et al. 2013. “Order Hymenoptera. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-Level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013).” Zootaxa, 3703 (1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.12.

[3] Alqahtani, T., H. A. Badreldin, M. Alrashed, et al. 2023. “The Emergent Role of Artificial Intelligence, Natural Learning Processing, and Large Language Models in Higher Education and Research.” Research in Social & Administrative Pharmacy: RSAP 19, no. 8: 1236–1242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2023.05.016.

[4] Amano, T., and W. J. Sutherland. 2013. “Four Barriers to the Global Understanding of Biodiversity Conservation: Wealth, Language, Geographical Location, and Security.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 280, no. 1756: 20122649. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.2649.

[5] Babonnaud, W., E. Delouche, and M. Lahlouh. 2024. “The Bias That Lies Beneath: Qualitative Uncovering of Stereotypes in Large Language Models.” Presented at the 14th Scandinavian Conference on Artificial Intelligence SCAI 2024, Jönköping, Sweden, June 10–11. https://doi.org/10.3384/ecp208022.

[6] Basset, Y., and G. P. A. Lamarre. 2019. “Toward a World That Values Insects.” Science 364, no. 6447: 1230–1231. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw7071.

[7] Bender, E. M., T. Gebru, A. McMillan-Major, and S. Shmitchell. 2021. “On the Dangers of Stochastic Parrots.” In Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, 610–623. https://doi.org/10.1145/3442188.3445922.

[8] Bhattacharya, S., S. Pal, and D. Acharyya. 2016. “Are Mosquitoes A Necessary Evil?” International Journal of Fauna and Biological Studies 3, no. 1: 124–129.

[9] Bommasani, R., D. A. Hudson, E. Adeli, et al. 2021. “On the Opportunities and Risks of Foundation Models (Version 3).” arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/ARXIV.2108.07258.

[10] Brock, R. E., A. Cini, and S. Sumner. 2021. “Ecosystem Services Provided by Aculeate Wasps.” Biological Reviews 96, no. 4: 1645–1675. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12719.

[11] Cardoso, P., T. L. Erwin, P. A. V. Borges, and T. R. New. 2011. “The Seven Impediments in Invertebrate Conservation and How to Overcome Them.” Biological Conservation 144: 2647–2655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.07.024.

[12] Chen, G. H., S. Chen, Z. Liu, F. Jiang, and B. Wang. 2024. “Humans or LLMs as the Judge? A Study on Judgement Biases.” arXiv preprint arXiv:2402.10669. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2402.10669.

[13] Courchamp, F., I. Jaric, C. Albert, Y. Meinard, W. J. Ripple, and G. Chapron. 2018. “The Paradoxical Extinction of the Most Charismatic Animals.” PLOS Biology 16, no. 4: e2003997. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.2003997.

[14] Dangles, O., and J. Casas. 2019. “Ecosystem Services Provided by Insects for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals.” Ecosystem Services 35: 109–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.12.002.

[15] Dirzo, R., H. S. Young, M. Galetti, G. Ceballos, N. J. Isaac, and B. Collen. 2014. “Defaunation in the Anthropocene.” Science (New York, N.Y.) 345, no. 6195: 401–406. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251817.

[16] Donkersley, P., L. Ashton, G. Lamarre, and S. Segar. 2022. “Global Insect Decline Is the Result of Wilful Political Failure: A Battle Plan for Entomology.” Ecology and Evolution 12, no. 10: e9417. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9417.

[17] Ducarme, F., G. M. Luque, and F. Courchamp. 2013. “What Are ‘Charismatic Species’ for Conservation Biologists?” BioSciences Master Reviews: 1–8.

[18] Dunn, L., M. Lequerica, C. R. Reid, and T. Latty. 2020. “Dual Ecosystem Services of Syrphid Flies (Diptera: Syrphidae): Pollinators and Biological Control Agents.” Pest Management Science 76, no. 6: 1973–1979. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.5807.

[19] Ehrlich, P. R., and E. O. Wilson. 1991. “Biodiversity Studies: Science and Policy.” Science 253, no. 5021: 758–762. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.253.5021.758.

[20] Eisenhauer, N., A. Bonn, and C. A. Guerra. 2019. “Recognizing the Quiet Extinction of Invertebrates.” Nature Communications 10: 50. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07916-1.

[21] Ellis, C. R.2021. “What's Eating You? Caterpillars.” Cutis 108: 346–351. https://doi.org/10.12788/cutis.0406.

[22] van Engelsdorp, D., J. D. Evans, C. Saegerman, et al. 2009. “Colony Collapse Disorder: A Descriptive Study.” PLoS One 4, no. 8: e6481. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0006481.

[23] Fink, C., A. Hausmann, and E. Di Minin. 2020. “Online Sentiment Towards Iconic Species.” Biological Conservation 241: 108289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108289.

[24] Fisher, B., and T. Christopher. 2007. “Poverty and Biodiversity: Measuring the Overlap of Human Poverty and the Biodiversity Hotspots.” Ecological Economics 62, no. 1: 93–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.05.020.

[25] Fitzgerald, K. T., and A. A. Flood. 2006. “Hymenoptera Stings.” Clinical Techniques in Small Animal Practice 21, no. 4: 194–204. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ctsap.2006.10.002.

[26] Forister, M. L., E. M. Pelton, and S. H. Black. 2019. “Declines in Insect Abundance and Diversity: We Know Enough to Act Now.” Conservation Science and Practice 1, no. 8: e80. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.80.

[27] Gallegos, I. O., R. A. Rossi, J. Barrow, et al. 2024. “Bias and Fairness in Large Language Models: A Survey.” Computational Linguistics 50, no. 3: 1097–1179. https://doi.org/10.1162/coli_a_00524.

[28] Geldmann, J., and J. P. González-Varo. 2018. “Conserving Honey Bees Does Not Help Wildlife.” Science 359, no. 6374: 392–393. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aar2269.

[29] Gerdes, A. B. M., G. Uhl, and G. W. Alpers. 2009. “Spiders Are Special: Fear and Disgust Evoked by Pictures of Arthropods.” Evolution and Human Behavior 30, no. 1: 66–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.08.005.

[30] Ghosal, G. R., T. Hashimoto, and A. Raghunathan. 2024. “Understanding Finetuning for Factual Knowledge Extraction.” Proceedings of Machine Learning Research 623: 15540–15558. https://proceedings.mlr.press/v235/ghosal24a.html.

[31] Gomez, A. P., P. Krus, M. Panarotto, and O. Isaksson. 2024. “Large Language Models in Complex System Design.” Proceedings of the Design Society 4: 2197–2206. https://doi.org/10.1017/pds.2024.222.

[32] Guo, Q., R. Wang, J. Guo, X. Tan, J. Bian, and Y. Yang. 2024. “Mitigating Reversal Curse in Large Language Models via Semantic-Aware Permutation Training.” arXiv preprint arXiv:2403.00758. https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2403.00758.

[33] Gurgurov, D., T. Bäumel, and T. Anikina. 2024. “Multilingual Large Language Models and Curse of Multilinguality.” arXiv preprint ar-Xiv:2406.10602. https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2406.10602.

[34] Habel, J. C., M. J. Samways, and T. Schmitt. 2019. “Mitigating the Precipitous Decline of Terrestrial European Insects: Requirements for a New Strategy.” Biodiversity and Conservation 28, no. 6: 1343–1360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01741-8.

[35] Hallmann, C. A., M. Sorg, E. Jongejans, et al. 2017. “More Than 75 Percent Decline Over 27 Years in Total Flying Insect Biomass in Protected Areas.” PLoS One 12, no. 10: e0185809. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185809.

[36] Helbling, A., M. Phute, M. Hull, and D. H. Chau. 2024. “LLM Self Defense: by Self Examination, LLMs Know They Are Being Tricked.” arXiv preprint arXiv:2308.07308. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2308.07308.

[37] Hofmann, V., P. R. Kalluri, D. Jurafsky, and S. King. 2024. “Dialect Prejudice Predicts AI Decisions About People's Character, Employability, and Criminality.” arXiv preprint arXiv:2403.00742. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2403.00742.

[38] Holt, B. G., J. P. Lessard, M. K. Borregaard, et al. 2013. “An Update of Wallace's Zoogeographic Regions of the World.” Science 339, no. 6115: 74–78. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1228282.

[39] Hu, M., and B. Liu. 2004. “Mining and Summarizing Customer Reviews.” Proceedings of the Tenth ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining KDD '04: 168–177. https://doi.org/10.1145/1014052.1014073.

[40] Imran, M., and N. Almusharraf. 2024. “Shaping a Sustainable Future: A Study of Teachers’ Perspectives on Environmental Education Awareness.” Cogent Education 11, no. 1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2024.2422223.

[41] Iriani, A., H. Situmorang, and T. T. Zein. 2021. “The Social Reality of Japanese Society in Rei Kimura's Novel Butterfly in the Wind.” Madah: Jurnal Bahasa Dan Sastra 12, no. 1: 118–132. https://doi.org/10.31503/madah.v12i1.400.

[42] Iwasaki, J. M., and K. Hogendoorn. 2022. “Mounting Evidence That Managed and Introduced Bees Have Negative Impacts on Wild Bees: An Updated Review.” Current Research in Insect Science 2: 100043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cris.2022.100043.

[43] Johnson, C. N., A. Balmford, B. W. Brook, et al. 2017. “Biodiversity Losses and Conservation Responses in the Anthropocene.” Science (New York, N.Y.) 356, no. 6335: 270–275. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam9317.

[44] Kasneci, E., K. Sessler, S. Küchemann, et al. 2023. “ChatGPT for Good? On Opportunities and Challenges of Large Language Models for Education.” Learning and Individual Differences 103: 102274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102274.

[45] Kawahara, A. Y., L. E. Reeves, J. R. Barber, and S. H. Black. 2021. “Eight Simple Actions That Individuals Can Take to Save Insects From Global Declines.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 2: e2002547117. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2002547117.

[46] Kehoe, R., E. Frago, and D. Sanders. 2021. “Cascading Extinctions as a Hidden Driver of Insect Decline.” Ecological Entomology 46, no. 4: 743–756. https://doi.org/10.1111/een.12985.

[47] Kellert, S. R.1993. “Values and Perceptions of Invertebrates.” Conservation Biology 7, no. 4: 845–855. https://doi.org/10.1046/J.1523-1739.1993.740845.X.

[48] Klein, A.-M., B. E. Vaissière, J. H. Cane, et al. 2007. “Importance of Pollinators in Changing Landscapes for World Crops.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274, no. 1608: 303–313. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3721.

[49] Leiter, C., R. Zhang, Y. Chen, et al. 2024. “ChatGPT: A Meta-Analysis After 2.5 Months.” Machine Learning With Applications 6: 100541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mlwa.2024.100541.

[50] Li, H., T. Xu, and C. Zhang, et al. 2024. “Bringing Generative AI to Adaptive Learning in Education.” arXiv preprint arXiv:2402.14601. https://doi.org/10.48550/ARXIV.2402.14601.

[51] MacInnis, G., E. Normandin, and C. D. Ziter. 2023. “Decline in Wild Bee Species Richness Associated With Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Abundance in an Urban Ecosystem.” PeerJ 11: e14699. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.14699.

[52] Mallinger, R. E., H. R. Gaines-Day, and C. Gratton. 2017. “Do Managed Bees Have Negative Effects on Wild Bees?: A Systematic Review of the Literature.” PLoS One 12, no. 12: e0189268. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189268.

[53] Martin, L. J., B. Blossey, and E. Ellis. 2012. “Mapping Where Ecologists Work: Biases in the Global Distribution of Terrestrial Ecological Observations.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10, no. 4: 195–201. https://doi.org/10.1890/110154.

[54] Meyer, C., H. Kreft, R. Guralnick, and W. Jetz. 2015. “Global Priorities for an Effective Information Basis of Biodiversity Distributions.” Nature Communications 6: 8221. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms9221.

[55] Michener, C. D. 2007. The Bees of the World, 2nd ed., 953. John Hopkins University Press.

[56] Mohammad, S. M., and P. D. Turney. 2013. “Crowdsourcing a Word–Emotion Association Lexicon.” Computational Intelligence 29, no. 3: 436–465. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8640.2012.00460.x.

[57] Narendran, T. C.2001. “ Parasitic Hymenoptera and Biological Control.” In Biocontrol Potential and its Exploitation in Sustainable Agriculture, edited by R. K. Upadhyay, K. G. Mukerji, and B. P. Chamola, 1–12. Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1377-3_1.

[58] Novacek, M. J.2008. “Engaging the Public in Biodiversity Issues.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105: 11571–11578. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0802599105.

[59] Oi, C. A., R. L. Brown, and S. Sumner. 2024. “Bee-Ing Positive About Wasp-Negative Media Reporting: The Opinions of Scientists and Their Influence on the Media.” Insectes Sociaux 71, no. 1: 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00040-024-00952-9.

[60] Ollerton, J., R. Winfree, and S. Tarrant. 2011. “How Many Flowering Plants Are Pollinated by Animals?” Oikos 120, no. 3: 321–326. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18644.x.

[61] Orford, K. A., I. P. Vaughan, and J. Memmott. 2015. “The Forgotten Flies: The Importance of Non-Syrphid Diptera as Pollinators.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282, no. 1805: 20142934. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.2934.

[62] Page, R. D. M.2016. “DNA Barcoding and Taxonomy: Dark Taxa and Dark Texts.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences 371, no. 1702: 20150334. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0334.

[63] Plutchik, R. 1991. The Emotions, 232. University Press of America.

[64] Posit Team. 2024. “ RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R.” Posit Software, PBC, Boston, MA. http://www.posit.co.

[65] Prakash, N., and L. K. W. Roy. 2024. “Interpreting Bias in Large Language Models: A Feature-Based Approach.” arXiv preprint arXiv:2406.12347. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2406.12347.

[66] Prendergast, K. S., J. E. Garcia, S. R. Howard, Z.-X. Ren, S. J. McFarlane, and A. G. Dyer. 2021. “Bee Representations in Human Art and Culture through the Ages.” Art & Perception 10, no. 2022: 1–62. https://doi.org/10.1163/22134913-bja10031.

[67] R Core Team. 2023. “R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.” R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org.

[68] Raguso, R. A.2020. “Don't Forget the Flies: Dipteran Diversity and Its Consequences for Floral Ecology and Evolution.” Applied Entomology and Zoology 55, no. 1: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13355-020-00668-9.

[69] Ransome, H. M. 2004. The Sacred Bee in Ancient Times And Folklore, 336. Dover Publications, Inc.

[70] Resnik, P. 2024. “Large Language Models are Biased Because They Are Large Language Models.” arXiv preprint arXiv:2406.13138. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2406.13138.

[71] Rumohr, Q., C. U. Baden, M. Bergtold, et al. 2023. “Drivers and Pressures Behind Insect Decline in Central and Western Europe Based on Long-Term Monitoring Data.” PLoS One 18, no. 8: 0289565. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289565.

[72] Sánchez-Bayo, F., and K. A. G. Wyckhuys. 2019. “Worldwide Decline of the Entomofauna: A Review of Its Drivers.” Biological Conservation 232: 8–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.01.020.

[73] Santangeli, A., S. Mammola, V. Nanni, and S. A. Lambertucci. 2024. “Large Language Models Debunk Fake and Sensational Wildlife News.” Integrative Conservation 3: 127–133. https://doi.org/10.1002/inc3.55.

[74] Santos, A. P. L., M. R. Menezes, B. F. S. Laviski, E. C. B. França, and J. M. Queiroz. 2023. “Perception About Pollinating Insects at Federal Rural University, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil.” Diversitas Journal 8, no. 2: 760–770. https://doi.org/10.48017/dj.v8i2.2622.

[75] Schlegel, J., and R. Rupf. 2010. “Attitudes Towards Potential Animal Flagship Species in Nature Conservation: A Survey Among Students of Different Educational Institutions.” Journal for Nature Conservation 18, no. 4: 278–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2009.12.002.

[76] Schramowski, P., C. Turan, N. Andersen, C. A. Rothkopf, and K. Kersting. 2022. “Large Pre-Trained Language Models Contain Human-Like Biases of What Is Right and Wrong to Do.” Nature Machine Intelligence 4: 258–268. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-022-00458-8.

[77] Semnani, S. J., V. Z. Yao, H. C. Zhang, and M. S. Lam. 2023. “ WikiChat: Stopping the Hallucination of Large Language Model Chatbots by Few-Shot Grounding on Wikipedia.” In Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2023, 2387–2413. Association for Computational Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2023.findings-emnlp.157.

[78] Shaw, M. R.2006. “Habitat Considerations for Parasitic Wasps (Hymenoptera).” Journal of Insect Conservation 10, no. 2: 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-006-6288-1.

[79] Shaw, M. R., and M. E. Hochberg. 2001. “The Neglect of Parasitic Hymenoptera in Insect Conservation Strategies: The British Fauna as a Prime Example.” Journal of Insect Conservation 5, no. 4: 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013393229923.

[80] Smith, T. J., and M. E. Saunders. 2016. “Honey Bees: The Queens of Mass Media, Despite Minority Rule Among Insect Pollinators.” Insect Conservation and Diversity 9, no. 5: 384–390. https://doi.org/10.1111/icad.12178.

[81] Soga, M., and K. J. Gaston. 2016. “Extinction of Experience: The Loss of Human–Nature Interactions.” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 14, no. 2: 94–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1225.

[82] Sree, K. S. and Varma, A., eds. 2015. Biocontrol of Lepidopteran Pests: Use of Soil Microbes and Their Metabolites (Soil Biology). Vol. 43, 344. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14499-3.

[83] Stork, N. E.2018. “How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?” Annual Review of Entomology 63: 31–45. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348.

[84] Sumner, S., G. Law, and A. Cini. 2018. “Why We Love Bees and Hate Wasps.” Ecological Entomology 43: 836–845. https://doi.org/10.1111/een.12676.

[85] Suryanarayanan, S., and D. L. Kleinman. 2016. Vanishing Bees: Science, Politics, and Honeybee Health, 160. Rutgers University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1hrdn77.

[86] Teubner, T., C. M. Flath, C. Weinhardt, W. van der Aalst, and O. Hinz. 2023. “Welcome to the Era of ChatGPT et al. the Prospects of Large Language Models.” Business & Information Systems Engineering 65, no. 2: 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12599-023-00795-x.

[87] Theiling, K. M., and B. A. Croft. 1988. “Pesticide Side-Effects on Arthropod Natural Enemies: A Database Summary.” Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 21, no. 3: 191–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(88)90088-6.

[88] Thomas, J. A., M. G. Telfer, D. B. Roy, et al. 2004. “Comparative Losses of British Butterflies, Birds, and Plants and the Global Extinction Crisis.” Science 303, no. 5665: 1879–1881. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1095046.

[89] Valido, A., M. C. Rodríguez-Rodríguez, and J. Jordano. 2019. “Honeybees Disrupt the Structure and Functionality of Plant-Pollinator Networks.” Scientific Reports 9, no. 1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41271-5.

[90] Verma, R. C., M. A. Waseem, N. Sharma, et al. 2023. “The Role of Insects in Ecosystems, an In-Depth Review of Entomological Research.” International Journal of Environment and Climate Change 13, no. 10: 4340–4348. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijecc/2023/v13i103110.

[91] Wagner, D. L., E. M. Grames, M. L. Forister, M. R. Berenbaum, and D. Stopak. 2021. “Insect Decline in the Anthropocene: Death by a Thousand Cuts.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, no. 2: e2023989118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023989118.

[92] Wang, Z., Y. Liu, M. Shi, J. Huang, and X. Chen. 2019. “Parasitoid Wasps as Effective Biological Control Agents.” Journal of Integrative Agriculture 18, no. 4: 705–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(18)62078-7.

[93] Yang, J., H. Jin, R. Tang, et al. 2024. “Harnessing the Power of LLMs in Practice: A Survey on ChatGPT and Beyond.” ACM Transactions on Knowledge Discovery From Data 18, no. 6: 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1145/3649506.

[94] Zhao, W. X., K. Zhou, and J. Li, et al. 2023. “A Survey of Large Language Models.” arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.18223. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2303.18223.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). Integrative Conservation published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden (XTBG).