Anode-free all-solid-state and thin-film batteries: Advances, challenges, and interfacial engineering strategies

Abstract

Anode-free all-solid-state batteries (AFASSBs) have garnered considerable attention as promising next-generation energy storage systems, offering high energy density, enhanced safety, and improved cost efficiency by eliminating the lithium metal anode. However, these advantages are offset by critical challenges, most of which stem from issues at the solid electrolyte–electrode interface. These challenges include interfacial instability, non-uniform lithium deposition during initial charging, and void formation owing to volumetric changes during cycling. Meanwhile, thin-film AFASSBs (TF-AFASSBs), fabricated by implementing the anode-free design in thin-film battery systems, offer distinct advantages over conventional thin-film systems, including higher energy density and a more streamlined cell structure. Moreover, their fabrication using deposition-based approaches promotes better interfacial wettability, thereby enhancing contact between the solid electrolyte and current collector. Despite these advantages, however, TF-AFASSBs are often more susceptible to interfacial degradation and uneven lithium plating than their bulk-type counterparts. In response to these challenges, considerable research has focused on mitigating interfacial and mechanical failures in both AFASSBs and TF-AFASSBs. This review presents an overview of the core characteristics and key limitations of AFASSBs and discusses recent advances in material development and interfacial engineering. These insights aim to guide the development of effective strategies for meeting the performance and stability requirements of practical TF-AFASSBs.

Keywords

all-solid-state batteries / anode-free batteries / thin-film batteries

References

[1] Rao GS, Tsang JC. Electrolysis method of intercalation of layered transition metal dichalcogenides. Mater Res Bull. 1974; 9(7): 921-926.

[2] Goodenough J, Mizushima K, Wiseman P. Electrochemical cell and method of making ion conductors for said cell. Eur Patent EP0017400A1. 1979; 5.

[3] Reddy MV, Mauger A, Julien CM, Paolella A, Zaghib K. Brief history of early lithium-battery development. Materials. 2020; 13(8): 1884.

[4] Ziegler MS, Trancik JE. Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery technology improvement and cost decline. Energy Environ Sci. 2021; 14(4): 1635-1651.

[5] Placke T, Kloepsch R, Dühnen S, Winter M. Lithium ion, lithium metal, and alternative rechargeable battery technologies: the odyssey for high energy density. J Solid State Electrochem. 2017; 21(7): 1939-1964.

[6] Dunn B, Kamath H, Tarascon J.-M. Electrical energy storage for the grid: a battery of choices. Science. 2011; 334(6058): 928-935.

[7] Behera S, Ippili S, Jella V, et al. Confluence of ZnO and PTFE binder for enhancing performance of thin-film lithium-ion batteries. Energy Environ Mater. 2024; 7(5): e12734.

[8] Xu K. Electrolytes and interphases in Li-ion batteries and beyond. Chemical reviews. 2014; 114(23): 11503-11618.

[9] Louli A, Eldesoky A, Weber R, et al. Diagnosing and correcting anode-free cell failure via electrolyte and morphological analysis. Nat Energy. 2020; 5(9): 693-702.

[10] Lv T, Zhu G, Dong S, et al. Co-intercalation of dual charge carriers in metal-ion-confining layered vanadium oxide nanobelts for aqueous zinc-ion batteries. Angew Chem. 2023; 135(5): e202216089.

[11] Geng P, Wang L, Du M, et al. MIL-96-Al for Li–S batteries: shape or size? Adv Mater. 2022; 34(4): 2107836.

[12] Lin D, Liu Y, Cui Y. Reviving the lithium metal anode for high-energy batteries. Nat Nanotechnol. 2017; 12(3): 194-206.

[13] Cheng X.-B, Zhang R, Zhao C.-Z, Zhang Q. Toward safe lithium metal anode in rechargeable batteries: a review. Chem. Rev. 2017; 117(15): 10403-10473.

[14] Xu W, Wang J, Ding F, et al. Lithium metal anodes for rechargeable batteries. Energy Environ Sci. 2014; 7(2): 513-537.

[15] Lewis JA, Cavallaro KA, Liu Y, McDowell MT. The promise of alloy anodes for solid-state batteries. Joule. 2022; 6(7): 1418-1430.

[16] Wang X, Lu J, Wu Y, et al. Building stable anodes for high-rate Na-metal batteries. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(16): 2311256.

[17] Kim S, Park G, Lee SJ, et al. Lithium-metal batteries: from fundamental research to industrialization. Adv Mater. 2023; 35(43): 2206625.

[18] Tikekar MD, Choudhury S, Tu Z, Archer LA. Design principles for electrolytes and interfaces for stable lithium-metal batteries. Nat Energy. 2016; 1(9): 1-7.

[19] Manthiram A, Yu X, Wang S. Lithium battery chemistries enabled by solid-state electrolytes. Nat Rev Mater. 2017; 2(4): 1-16.

[20] Kato Y, Hori S, Kanno R. Li₁₀GeP₂S₁₂-type superionic conductors: synthesis, structure, and ionic transportation. Adv Energy Mater. 2020; 10(42): 2002153.

[21] Zhang Q, Cao D, Ma Y, Natan A, Aurora P, Zhu H. Sulfide-based solid-state electrolytes: synthesis, stability, and potential for all-solid-state batteries. Adv Mater. 2019; 31(44): 1901131.

[22] Park SH, Jun D, Lee GH, Lee SG, Lee YJ. Toward high-performance anodeless batteries based on controlled lithium metal deposition: a review. J Mater Chem A. 2021; 9(26): 14656-14681.

[23] Sharma V, Singh K, Narayanan K. A review on the transition from conventional to bipolar designs of anode-less all-solid-state batteries. Energy Advances. 2024; 3(6): 1222-1237.

[24] Genovese M, Louli A, Weber R, Hames S, Dahn J. Measuring the coulombic efficiency of lithium metal cycling in anode-free lithium metal batteries. J Electrochem Soc. 2018; 165(14): A3321-A3325.

[25] Yu Z, Wang H, Kong X, et al. Molecular design for electrolyte solvents enabling energy-dense and long-cycling lithium metal batteries. Nat Energy. 2020; 5(7): 526-533.

[26] Nanda S, Gupta A, Manthiram A. Anode-free full cells: a pathway to high-energy density lithium-metal batteries. Adv Energy Mater. 2021; 11(2): 2000804.

[27] Zor C, Turrell SJ, Uyanik MS, Afyon S. Lithium plating and stripping: toward anode-free solid-state batteries. Adv Energy Sustain Res. 2024; 5(8): 2300001.

[28] Huang WZ, Zhao CZ, Wu P, et al. Anode-free solid-state lithium batteries: a review. Adv Energy Mater. 2022; 12(26): 2201044.

[29] Matsuhashi K, Kanamoto T, Kurokawa A. Thermal model and countermeasures for future smart glasses. Sensors. 2020; 20(5): 1446.

[30] Lee H, Kim S, Kim K.-B, Choi J.-W. Scalable fabrication of flexible thin-film batteries for smart lens applications. Nano Energy. 2018; 53: 225-231.

[31] Kutbee AT, Bahabry RR, Alamoudi KO, et al. Flexible and biocompatible high-performance solid-state micro-battery for implantable orthodontic system. npj Flex Electron. 2017; 1(1): 7.

[32] Chen G, Fojtik M, Kim D, et al. Millimeter-scale nearly perpetual sensor system with stacked battery and solar cells. IEEE. 2010: 288-289.

[33] Liu X, Lillehoj P. A Liquid-Activated Textile Battery for Wearable Biosensors. IOP Publishing; 2015.012063.

[34] Phan DT, Nguyen CH, Nguyen TDP, et al. A flexible, wearable, and wireless biosensor patch with internet of medical things applications. Biosensors. 2022; 12(3): 139.

[35] Neudecker B, Dudney N, Bates J. “Lithium-free” thin-film battery with in situ plated Li anode. J Electrochem Soc. 2000; 147(2): 517.

[36] Günter F, Wassiliadis N. State of the art of lithium-ion pouch cells in automotive applications: cell teardown and characterization. J Electrochem Soc. 2022; 169(3): 030515.

[37] Heubner C, Maletti S, Auer H, et al. From lithium-metal toward anode-free solid-state batteries: current developments, issues, and challenges. Adv Funct Mater. 2021; 31(51): 2106608.

[38] Xia S, Wu X, Zhang Z, Cui Y, Liu W. Practical challenges and future perspectives of all-solid-state lithium-metal batteries. Chem. 2019; 5(4): 753-785.

[39] Lv Q, Jiang Y, Wang B, et al. Suppressing lithium dendrites within inorganic solid-state electrolytes. Cell Rep Phys Sci. 2022; 3(1): 100706.

[40] Golozar M, Paolella A, Demers H, et al. Direct observation of lithium metal dendrites with ceramic solid electrolyte. Sci Rep. 2020; 10(1): 18410.

[41] Duffner F, Mauler L, Wentker M, Leker J, Winter M. Large-scale automotive battery cell manufacturing: analyzing strategic and operational effects on manufacturing costs. Int J Prod Econ. 2021; 232: 107982.

[42] Ciez RE, Whitacre J. The cost of lithium is unlikely to upend the price of Li-ion storage systems. J Power Sources. 2016; 320: 310-313.

[43] Wood III DL, Li J, Daniel C. Prospects for reducing the processing cost of lithium ion batteries. J Power Sources. 2015; 275: 234-242.

[44] Banus M, Hinckley A. Handling and uses of the alkali metals. Adv Chem. 1957; 19: 106-117.

[45] Zhu Y, He X, Mo Y. Origin of outstanding stability in the lithium solid electrolyte materials: insights from thermodynamic analyses based on first-principles calculations. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2015; 7(42): 23685-23693.

[46] Liang Y, Liu H, Wang G, et al. Challenges, interface engineering, and processing strategies toward practical sulfide-based all-solid-state lithium batteries. InfoMat. 2022; 4(5): e12292.

[47] Wang J.-C, Wang P.-F, Yi T.-F. Challenges and optimization strategies at the interface between sulfide solid electrolyte and lithium anode. Energy Storage Mater. 2023; 62: 102958.

[48] Wang J.-C, Zhao L.-L, Zhang N, Wang P.-F, Yi T.-F. Interfacial stability between sulfide solid electrolytes and lithium anodes: challenges, strategies and perspectives. Nano Energy. 2024; 123: 109361.

[49] Riegger LM, Mittelsdorf S, Fuchs T, Rueß R, Richter FH, Janek J. Evolution of the interphase between argyrodite-based solid electrolytes and the lithium metal anode─ the kinetics of solid electrolyte interphase growth. Chem Mater. 2023; 35(13): 5091-5099.

[50] Hu Z, Liu L, Wang X, Zheng Q, Han C, Li W. Current progress of anode-free rechargeable sodium metal batteries: origin, challenges, strategies, and perspectives. Adv Funct Mater. 2024; 34(22): 2313823.

[51] Kim K, Park D, Jung H.-G, et al. Material design strategy for halide solid electrolytes Li₃MX₆ (X= Cl, Br, and I) for all-solid-state high-voltage Li-ion batteries. Chem Mater. 2021; 33(10): 3669-3677.

[52] Tong Z, Bazri B, Hu S.-F, Liu R.-S. Interfacial chemistry in anode-free batteries: challenges and strategies. J Mater Chem A. 2021; 9(12): 7396-7406.

[53] Walling J. Electrochemical Kinetics, Theoretical and Experimental Aspects (Vetter, Klaus J.). ACS Publications; 1968.

[54] Krauskopf T, Richter FH, Zeier WG, Janek J. Physicochemical concepts of the lithium metal anode in solid-state batteries. Chemical reviews. 2020; 120(15): 7745-7794.

[55] Monroe C, Newman J. The impact of elastic deformation on deposition kinetics at lithium/polymer interfaces. J Electrochem Soc. 2005; 152(2): A396.

[56] Singh DK, Henss A, Mogwitz B, et al. Li₆PS₅Cl microstructure and influence on dendrite growth in solid-state batteries with lithium metal anode. Cell Rep Phys Sci. 2022; 3(9): 101043.

[57] Liu H, Cheng X.-B, Huang J.-Q, et al. Controlling dendrite growth in solid-state electrolytes. ACS Energy Lett. 2020; 5(3): 833-843.

[58] Ren Y, Shen Y, Lin Y, Nan C.-W. Direct observation of lithium dendrites inside garnet-type lithium-ion solid electrolyte. Electrochem Commun. 2015; 57: 27-30.

[59] Mo F, Ruan J, Sun S, et al. Inside or outside: origin of lithium dendrite formation of all solid-state electrolytes. Adv Energy Mater. 2019; 9(40): 1902123.

[60] Nagao M, Hayashi A, Tatsumisago M, Kanetsuku T, Tsuda T, Kuwabata S. In situ SEM study of a lithium deposition and dissolution mechanism in a bulk-type solid-state cell with a Li 2 S–P 2 S 5 solid electrolyte. Phys Chem Chem Phys. 2013; 15(42): 18600-18606.

[61] Zhang L, Yang T, Du C, et al. Lithium whisker growth and stress generation in an in situ atomic force microscope–environmental transmission electron microscope set-up. Nat Nanotechnol. 2020; 15(2): 94-98.

[62] Zhang W, Schröder D, Arlt T, et al. (Electro) chemical expansion during cycling: monitoring the pressure changes in operating solid-state lithium batteries. J Mater Chem A. 2017; 5(20): 9929-9936.

[63] Gao H, Ai X, Wang H, et al. Visualizing the failure of solid electrolyte under GPa-level interface stress induced by lithium eruption. Nat Commun. 2022; 13(1): 5050.

[64] Zhao L, Feng M, Wu C, et al. Imaging the evolution of lithium-solid electrolyte interface using operando scanning electron microscopy. Nat Commun. 2025; 16(1): 4283.

[65] Sun F, Dong K, Osenberg M, et al. Visualizing the morphological and compositional evolution of the interface of InLi-anode| thio-LISION electrolyte in an all-solid-state Li–S cell by in operando synchrotron X-ray tomography and energy dispersive diffraction. J Mater Chem A. 2018; 6(45): 22489-22496.

[66] Luo W, Gong Y, Zhu Y, et al. Transition from superlithiophobicity to superlithiophilicity of garnet solid-state electrolyte. J Am Chem Soc. 2016; 138(37): 12258-12262.

[67] Fu K, Gong Y, Fu Z, et al. Transient behavior of the metal interface in lithium metal–garnet batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2017; 56(47): 14942-14947.

[68] Cai M, Lu Y, Yao L, Jin J, Wen Z. Robust conversion-type Li/Garnet interphases from metal salt solutions. Chem Eng J. 2021; 417: 129158.

[69] Serbessa GG, Taklu BW, Nikodimos Y, et al. Boosting the interfacial stability of the Li₆PS₅Cl electrolyte with a Li anode via in situ formation of a LiF-rich SEI layer and a ductile sulfide composite solid electrolyte. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024; 16(8): 10832-10844.

[70] Li S, Yang Z, Wang S.-B, et al. Sulfide-based composite solid electrolyte films for all-solid-state batteries. Commun. Mater. 2024; 5(1): 44.

[71] Homann G, Stolz L, Nair J, Laskovic IC, Winter M, Kasnatscheew J. Poly (ethylene oxide)-based electrolyte for solid-state-lithium-batteries with high voltage positive electrodes: evaluating the role of electrolyte oxidation in rapid cell failure. Sci Rep. 2020; 10(1): 4390.

[72] Lyu W, Fu H, Rao AM, et al. Permeable void-free interface for all-solid-state alkali-ion polymer batteries. Sci Adv. 2024; 10(42): eadr9602.

[73] Li X, Li Z, Li C, et al. Facilitating uniform lithium-ion transport via polymer-assisted formation of unique interfaces to achieve a stable 4.7 V Li metal battery. Natl Sci Rev. 2025; 12(6): nwaf182.

[74] Ye S, Zhang Y, Huang Y, et al. Regulating ion transport through direct coordination in composite gel polymer electrolytes toward high-voltage and high-loading quasi-solid-state lithium metal batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2025; 64(28): e202506662.

[75] Yan K, Lu Z, Lee H.-W, et al. Selective deposition and stable encapsulation of lithium through heterogeneous seeded growth. Nat Energy. 2016; 1(3): 1-8.

[76] Muller A, Paravicini L, Morzy J, et al. Influence of Au, Pt, and C seed layers on lithium nucleation dynamics for anode-free solid-state batteries. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2023; 16(1): 695-703.

[77] Lee JH, Oh S.-H, Yim H, et al. Interfacial stabilization strategy via In-doped Ag metal coating enables a high cycle life of anode-free solid-state Li batteries. Energy Storage Mater. 2024; 69: 103398.

[78] Ko D.-S, Kim S, Lee S, et al. Mechanism of stable lithium plating and stripping in a metal-interlayer-inserted anode-less solid-state lithium metal battery. Nat Commun. 2025; 16(1): 1066.

[79] Lee Y.-G, Fujiki S, Jung C, et al. High-energy long-cycling all-solid-state lithium metal batteries enabled by silver–carbon composite anodes. Nat Energy. 2020; 5(4): 299-308.

[80] Jung Y.-C, Hwang C, Kwak M.-J, et al. On-site formation of silver decorated carbon as an anodeless electrode for high-energy density all-solid-state batteries. J Mater Chem A. 2023; 11(46): 25275-25282.

[81] Suzuki N, Yashiro N, Fujiki S, et al. Highly cyclable all-solid-state battery with deposition-type lithium metal anode based on thin carbon black layer. Adv Energy Sustain Res. 2021; 2(11): 2100066.

[82] Wang MJ, Choudhury R, Sakamoto J. Characterizing the Li-solid-electrolyte interface dynamics as a function of stack pressure and current density. Joule. 2019; 3(9): 2165-2178.

[83] Cao D, Ji T, Wei Z, et al. Enhancing lithium stripping efficiency in anode-free solid-state batteries through self-regulated internal pressure. Nano Lett. 2023; 23(20): 9392-9398.

[84] Kim KH, Lee M.-J, Ryu M, et al. Near-strain-free anode architecture enabled by interfacial diffusion creep for initial-anode-free quasi-solid-state batteries. Nat Commun. 2024; 15(1): 3586.

[85] Chen Y, Wang Z, Li X, et al. Li metal deposition and stripping in a solid-state battery via coble creep. Nature. 2020; 578(7794): 251-255.

[86] Vanaphuti P, Su L, Manthiram A. Effect of electrochemical pre-lithiation on layered oxide cathodes for anode-free lithium-metal batteries. Small Methods. 2024; 8(1): 2301159.

[87] Park SW, Choi HJ, Yoo Y, et al. Stable cycling of all-solid-state batteries with sacrificial cathode and lithium-free indium layer. Adv Funct Mater. 2022; 32(5): 2108203.

[88] Xu X, Chu S, Xu S, et al. Integrating prelithiation and interface protection to achieve high-energy all-solid-state batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2025; 64(4): e202415891.

[89] Chen L, Chiang C.-L, Zeng G, et al. Enhancing the cycle-life of initial-anode-free lithium-metal batteries by pre-lithiation in Mn-based Li-rich spinel cathodes. J Mater Chem A. 2023; 11(21): 11119-11125.

[90] Lu Y, Chang HM, Birke KP. A dual-layered anode buffer layer structure for all solid-state batteries. Batter Supercaps. 2025; 8(1): e202400268.

[91] Sung J, Kim SY, Harutyunyan A, et al. Ultra-thin lithium silicide interlayer for solid-state lithium-metal batteries. Adv Mater. 2023; 35(22): 2210835.

[92] Seo M, Lee Y, Shin H, et al. Effect of bias potential on the interface of a solid electrolyte and electrode during XPS depth profiling analysis. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024; 16(20): 26922-26931.

[93] Behera S, Panda CK, Lee S, et al. Pioneering energy storage using facing-target sputtered Al₂O₃ protection layer on Ni-rich NCM622 cathode for high-efficiency all-solid-state thin-film batteries. Chem Eng J. 2025; 522: 167123.

[94] Behera S, Lee S, Boo D.-K, et al. Optimization of thin-film Li_1.0 Ni_0.6 Co_0.2 Mn_0.2 O₂ cathodes enabled by rapid thermal processing in oxygen-rich environments for superior lithium-ion battery performance. J Mater Chem A. 2025; 13(35): 29196-29207.

[95] Gowdru SM, Wu YC, Liu TR, et al. Ultrathin atomic layer deposition Al₂O₃ coatings on graphite cathode materials for improving anti-self-discharging al-ion battery. J Chin Chem Soc. 2023; 70(12): 2238-2244.

[96] Kim JH, Song A, Park JM, et al. Analogous design of a microlayered silicon oxide-based electrode to the general electrode structure for thin-film lithium-ion batteries. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(14): 2309183.

[97] Park G, Kim H.-S, Lee KJ. Solvent-free processed cathode slurry with carbon nanotube conductors for Li-ion batteries. Nanomaterials. 2023; 13(2): 324.

[98] Cho S.-H, Park J.-S, Kim JH, et al. Oxygen-related defect engineering of amorphous vanadium pentoxide cathode for achieving high-performance thin-film aqueous zinc-ion batteries. ACS Appl Energy Mater. 2023; 6(5): 2719-2727.

[99] Ferrari VC, Kim NS, Lee SB, Rubloff GW, Stewart DM. Co-sputtering of lithium vanadium oxide thin films with variable lithium content to enable advanced solid-state batteries. J Mater Chem A. 2022; 10(23): 12518-12531.

[100] Speulmanns J, Kia AM, Bönhardt S, Weinreich W, Adelhelm P. Atomic layer deposition of textured Li₄Ti₅O₁₂: a high-power and long-cycle life anode for lithium-ion thin-film batteries. Small. 2021; 17(34): 2102635.

[101] Curcio M, De Bonis A, Brutti S, Santagata A, Teghil R. Pulsed laser deposition of thin films of TiO₂ for Li-ion batteries. Appl Surf Sci Adv. 2021; 4: 100090.

[102] Lo Presti F, Pellegrino AL, Micard Q, et al. LiNbO₃ thin films through a sol–gel/spin-coating approach using a novel heterobimetallic lithium–niobium precursor. Nanomaterials. 2024; 14(4): 345.

[103] Hsueh T.-H, Tsai C.-H, Liu S.-E, et al. LiCoO₂ battery electrode fabricated by high deposition-rate atmospheric plasma spraying for lithium battery. J Electrochem Soc. 2022; 169(10): 100506.

[104] Sztymela K, Bienia M, Rossignol F, et al. Fabrication of modern lithium ion batteries by 3D inkjet printing: opportunities and challenges. Heliyon. 2022; 8(12): e12623.

[105] Afzali P, Gibertini E, Magagnin L. Improved plating/stripping in anode-free lithium metal batteries through electrodeposition of lithiophilic zinc thin films. Electrochim Acta. 2024; 488: 144190.

[106] Yang G, Abraham C, Ma Y, et al. Advances in materials design for all-solid-state batteries: from bulk to thin films. Appl. Sci. 2020; 10(14): 4727.

[107] Kim JH, Xiao C.-F, Han J, Kim YJ, Yagi S, Kim H.-S. Interface control for high-performance all-solid-state Li thin-film batteries. Ceram Int. 2020; 46(12): 19960-19965.

[108] Futscher MH, Brinkman L, Müller A, Casella J, Aribia A, Romanyuk YE. Monolithically-stacked thin-film solid-state batteries. Commun Chem. 2023; 6(1): 110.

[109] Moitzheim S, Put B, Vereecken PM. Advances in 3D thin-film Li-ion batteries. Adv Mater Interfac. 2019; 6(15): 1900805.

[110] Famprikis T, Canepa P, Dawson JA, Islam MS, Masquelier C. Fundamentals of inorganic solid-state electrolytes for batteries. Nat Mater. 2019; 18(12): 1278-1291.

[111] Zhao Q, Stalin S, Zhao C.-Z, Archer LA. Designing solid-state electrolytes for safe, energy-dense batteries. Nat Rev Mater. 2020; 5(3): 229-252.

[112] Kozen AC, Pearse AJ, Lin C.-F, Noked M, Rubloff GW. Atomic layer deposition of the solid electrolyte LiPON. Chem Mater. 2015; 27(15): 5324-5331.

[113] Kim JH, Go K, Lee KJ, Kim HS. Improved performance of all-solid-state lithium metal batteries via physical and chemical interfacial control. Adv Sci. 2022; 9(2): 2103433.

[114] Madinabeitia I, Rikarte J, Etxebarria A, et al. Monolithic all-solid-state high-voltage Li-metal thin-film rechargeable battery. ACS Appl Energy Mater. 2022; 5(10): 12120-12131.

[115] Yu C, Ganapathy S, Hageman J, et al. Facile synthesis toward the optimal structure-conductivity characteristics of the argyrodite Li6PS5Cl solid-state electrolyte. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2018; 10(39): 33296-33306.

[116] Mei H.-x, Piccardo P, Carraro G, Smerieri M, Spotorno R. Thin-film Li₃InC_l6 electrolyte prepared by solution casting method for all-solid-state batteries. J Energy Storage. 2023; 72: 108244.

[117] Asano T, Sakai A, Ouchi S, Sakaida M, Miyazaki A, Hasegawa S. Solid halide electrolytes with high lithium-ion conductivity for application in 4 V class bulk-type all-solid-state batteries. Adv Mater. 2018; 30(44): 1803075.

[118] Ke B, Cheng S, Zhang C, et al. Low-temperature flexible integration of all-solid-state thin-film lithium batteries enabled by spin-coating electrode architecture. Adv Energy Mater. 2024; 14(12): 2303757.

[119] Liu T, Chen X, Tervoort E, Kraus T, Niederberger M. Design and fabrication of transparent and stretchable zinc ion batteries. ACS Appl Energy Mater. 2021; 4(6): 6166-6179.

[120] Sepúlveda A, Speulmanns J, Vereecken PM. Bending impact on the performance of a flexible Li₄Ti₅O₁₂-based all-solid-state thin-film battery. Sci Technol Adv Mater. 2018; 19(1): 454-464.

[121] Cheng D, Tran K, Rao S, et al. Manufacturing scale-up of anodeless solid-state lithium thin-film batteries for high volumetric energy density applications. ACS Energy Lett. 2023; 8(11): 4768-4774.

[122] Westover AS, Dudney NJ, Sacci RL, Kalnaus S. Deposition and confinement of Li metal along an artificial lipon–lipon interface. ACS Energy Lett. 2019; 4(3): 651-655.

[123] Spencer-Jolly D, Agarwal V, Doerrer C, et al. Structural changes in the silver-carbon composite anode interlayer of solid-state batteries. Joule. 2023; 7(3): 503-514.

[124] Liao DW, Cho TH, Sarna S, et al. Interfacial dynamics of carbon interlayers in anode-free solid-state batteries. J Mater Chem A. 2024; 12(10): 5990-6003.

[125] Jun D, Park SH, Jung JE, et al. Ultra-stable breathing anode for li-free all-solid-state battery based on Li concentration gradient in magnesium particles. Adv Funct Mater. 2024; 34(8): 2310259.

[126] Oh J, Choi SH, Kim JY, et al. Anode-less all-solid-state batteries operating at room temperature and low pressure. Adv Energy Mater. 2023; 13(38): 2301508.

[127] Liu M, Wang C, Cheng Z, et al. Controlling the lithium-metal growth to enable low-lithium-metal-excess all-solid-state lithium-metal batteries. ACS Mater Lett. 2020; 2(7): 665-670.

[128] Guo W, Tian F, Fu D, Cui H, Song H, Wang C. High-performance aqueous calcium ion batteries enabled by Zn metal anodes with stable ion-conducting interphases. Nano Lett. 2024; 24(39): 12095-12101.

[129] Wan Z, Shi K, Huang Y, et al. Three-dimensional alloy interface between Li_6.4La₃Zr_1.4Ta_0.6O₁₂ and Li metal to achieve excellent cycling stability of all-solid-state battery. J Power Sources. 2021; 505: 230062.

Rights & permissions

2026 The Author(s). InfoScience published by UESTC and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.