Low hysteresis solid-state ion-conducting elastomers for low-drift pressure sensing

Abstract

Flexible iontronic pressure sensors with high sensitivity, low hysteresis, and low detection limit are increasingly demanded for wearable electronics and intelligent robotics. However, it remains challenging to combine these sensor performances due to inherent property trade-offs in pressure-sensitive ion-conducting elastomers (ICEs), particularly among mechanical resilience, softness, and ionic conductivity. To address this issue, we propose a load-bearing and mechanically reversible network design that integrates strong covalent crosslinks for mechanical elasticity, weak sacrificial bonds for softness, and dynamic coordination interactions to facilitate ion transport. Based on this strategy, our fabricated ICEs exhibit excellent elasticity (<5% hysteresis over 1000 tensile cycles), low elastic modulus (~66 kPa), intrinsic self-healing capability, and high ionic conductivity (2.57 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ at room temperature). The resulting iontronic sensor achieves high sensitivity (8.28 kPa⁻¹), low detection limit (6 Pa), and minimal signal drift (~0.72% capacitance change over 10 h.). Finally, the superiority of the low drift iontronic sensor is demonstrated by a robotic gripper with high reliability. Therefore, this work provides a general design principle to reconcile competing demands in ICEs and enables the development of high-performance, durable iontronic sensors for next-generation wearable and robotic applications.

Keywords

capacitive sensors / hysteresis / load-bearing and mechanically reversible network / resilience / sensitivity / solid-state ion-conducting elastomers

References

[1] Yang JS, Chung MK, Yoo JY, et al. Interference-free nanogap pressure sensor array with high spatial resolution for wireless human-machine interfaces applications. Nat Commun. 2025; 16(1): 2024.

[2] Niu S, Wang T, Liang C, et al. Flexible pressure sensor with tunable sensitivity and responsive range for adaptive wearable electronics. InfoMat. 2026; 8(1):e70059.

[3] Chortos A, Liu J, Bao Z. Pursuing prosthetic electronic skin. Nat Mater. 2016; 15(9): 937-950.

[4] Wang X, Deng Y, Jiang P, Chen X, Yu H. Low-hysteresis, pressure-insensitive, and transparent capacitive strain sensor for human activity monitoring. Microsyst Nanoeng. 2022; 8(1): 113.

[5] Hammock ML, Chortos A, Tee BCK, Tok JBH, Bao Z. 25th anniversary article: the evolution of electronic skin (e-skin): a brief history, design considerations, and recent progress. Adv Mater. 2013; 25(42): 5997-6038.

[6] Nie B, Li R, Cao J, Brandt JD, Pan T. Flexible transparent iontronic film for interfacial capacitive pressure sensing. Adv Mater. 2015; 27(39): 6055-6062.

[7] Li R, Si Y, Zhu Z, et al. Supercapacitive iontronic nanofabric sensing. Adv Mater. 2017; 29(36):1700253.

[8] Zhou Y, Guo S, Zhou Y, et al. Ionic composite nanofiber membrane-based ultra-sensitive and anti-interference flexible pressure sensors for intelligent sign language recognition. Adv Funct Mater. 2025; 35(29):2425586.

[9] Li Y, Guo S, Wang B, et al. Machine learning-assisted wearable sensor array for comprehensive ammonia and nitrogen dioxide detection in wide relative humidity range. InfoMat. 2024; 6(6):e12544.

[10] Chang Y, Wang L, Li R, et al. First decade of interfacial iontronic sensing: from droplet sensors to artificial skins. Adv Mater. 2021; 33(7):2003464.

[11] Wang C, Xu X, Wang Z, et al. Robust self-healing polyurethane-based solid-state ion-conductive elastomers with exceptional strength and ionic conductivity for multifunctional strain sensors and triboelectric nanogenerators. Adv Mater. 2025; 37(32):2504361.

[12] Wang C, Duan X, Li X, et al. A self-healing solid-state ion-conductive elastomer with high mechanical robustness and high conductivity for soft ionotronics. Adv Funct Mater. 2024; 34(38):2402815.

[13] Liu J, Chen X, Sun B, et al. Stretchable strain sensor of composite hydrogels with high fatigue resistance and low hysteresis. J Mater Chem A. 2022; 10(48): 25564-25574.

[14] Huang X, Liu L, Lin YH, et al. High-stretchability and low-hysteresis strain sensors using origami-inspired 3D mesostructures. Sci Adv. 2023; 9(34):eadh9799.

[15] Li Y, Wang D, Wen J, et al. Ultra-stretchable, variable modulus, shape memory multi-purpose low hysteresis hydrogel derived from solvent-induced dynamic micelle sea-Island structure. Adv Funct Mater. 2021; 31(22):2011259.

[16] Nakamitsu M, Oyama K, Imai H, Fujii S, Oaki Y. Ultrahigh-sensitive compression-stress sensor using integrated stimuli-responsive materials. Adv Mater. 2021; 33(14):2008755.

[17] Xie L, Lei H, Liu Y, et al. Ultrasensitive wearable pressure sensors with stress-concentrated tip-array design for long-term bimodal identification. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(45):2406235.

[18] Zhuang Y, Li X, Lin F, et al. Visualizing dynamic mechanical actions with high sensitivity and high resolution by near-distance mechanoluminescence imaging. Adv Mater. 2022; 34(36):2202864.

[19] Su L, Jiang Z, Tian Z, Wang H, Wang H, Zi Y. Self-powered, ultrasensitive, and high-resolution visualized flexible pressure sensor based on color-tunable triboelectrification-induced electroluminescence. Nano Energy. 2021; 79:105431.

[20] Wang H, Li S, Zhang Y, et al. A self-powered, shapeable, and wearable sensor for effective hazard prevention and biomechanical monitoring. SmartSys. 2025; 1(1):e3.

[21] Nishiyama H, Nakamura M. Form and capacitance of parallel-plate capacitors. IEEE Trans Comp Packag Manufact Technol A. 1994; 17(3): 477-484.

[22] Imbrogno J, Maruyama K, Rivers F, et al. Relationship between ionic conductivity, glass transition temperature, and dielectric constant in poly(vinyl ether) lithium electrolytes. ACS Macro Lett. 2021; 10(8): 1002-1007.

[23] Wheatle BK, Keith JR, Mogurampelly S, Lynd NA, Ganesan V. Influence of dielectric constant on ionic transport in polyether-based electrolytes. ACS Macro Lett. 2017; 6(12): 1362-1367.

[24] Shen KH, Hall LM. Effects of ion size and dielectric constant on ion transport and transference number in polymer electrolytes. Macromolecules. 2020; 53(22): 10086-10096.

[25] Aziz SB. Role of dielectric constant on ion transport: reformulated arrhenius equation. Adv Mater Sci Eng. 2016; 2016(2527013): 1-11.

[26] Cheng AJ, Wu L, Sha Z, et al. Recent advances of capacitive sensors: materials, microstructure designs, applications, and opportunities. Adv Mater Technol. 2023; 8(11):2201959.

[27] Mannsfeld SCB, Tee BCK, Stoltenberg RM, et al. Highly sensitive flexible pressure sensors with microstructured rubber dielectric layers. Nat Mater. 2010; 9(10): 859-864.

[28] Trung TQ, Lee N. Flexible and stretchable physical sensor integrated platforms for wearable human-activity monitoring and personal healthcare. Adv Mater. 2016; 28(22): 4338-4372.

[29] Cao C, Huang T, Li Y. Resilient and tough conductive polymer hydrogel for a low-hysteresis strain sensor. Macromol Rapid Commun. 2024; 45(2):2300467.

[30] Yue T, He J, Tao L, Li Y. High-throughput screening and prediction of high modulus of resilience polymers using explainable machine learning. J Chem Theory Comput. 2023; 19(14): 4641-4653.

[31] Sun B, Liu K, Wu B, Sun S, Wu P. Low-hysteresis and tough ionogels via low-energy-dissipating cross-linking. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(44):2408826.

[32] Guo J, Zhan L, Ma B, et al. A review on failure mechanism and mechanical performance improvement of FRP-metal adhesive joints under different temperature-humidity. Thin-Walled Struct. 2023; 188:110788.

[33] He Y, Cheng Y, Yang C, Guo CF. Creep-free polyelectrolyte elastomer for drift-free iontronic sensing. Nat Mater. 2024; 23(8): 1107-1114.

[34] Zhang P, Ruan H, Li Q, He Y, Yang C. Resolving hyperelasticity-adhesiveness conflict in polymer networks by in situ constructing mechanical heterogeneities. Nat Commun. 2025; 16(1): 6094.

[35] Sun Z, He T, Ren Z, et al. Moving toward human-like perception and sensation systems—from integrated intelligent systems to decentralized smart devices. SmartSys. 2025; 1(1):e4.

[36] Hasany M, Kohestanian M, Najafi Tireh Shabankareh A, Nezhad-Mokhtari P, Mehrali M. Ultra-stretchable, super-tough, and highly stable ion-doped hydrogel for advanced robotic applications and human motion sensing. InfoMat. 2025; 7(5):e12655.

[37] Li Z, Fu J, Zhou X, et al. Ionic conduction in polymer-based solid electrolytes. Adv Sci. 2023; 10(10):2201718.

[38] Yin L, Zhang P, Yang J, Meng J, Wu M, Pu X. A dual-bond crosslinking strategy enabling resilient and recyclable electrolyte elastomers for solid-state lithium metal batteries. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2024; 63(32):e202404769.

[39] Huang C, Jia X, Tian R, Yang J, Song H. Enhanced tough recyclable hemiaminal dynamic covalent network with boron nitride composites material with high thermal conductivity at low filler content. J Clean Prod. 2024; 448:141657.

[40] García JM, Jones GO, Virwani K, et al. Recyclable, strong thermosets and organogels via paraformaldehyde condensation with diamines. Science. 2014; 344(6185): 732-735.

[41] Liu Y, Yue S, Tian Z, et al. Self-powered and self-healable extraocular-muscle-like actuator based on dielectric elastomer actuator and triboelectric nanogenerator. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(7):2309893.

[42] Fan F, Wang W, Holt AP, et al. Effect of molecular weight on the ion transport mechanism in polymerized ionic liquids. Macromolecules. 2016; 49(12): 4557-4570.

[43] Li R, Fan T, Chen G, Xie H, Su B, He M. Highly transparent, self-healing conductive elastomers enabled by synergistic hydrogen bonding interactions. Chem Eng J. 2020; 393:124685.

[44] Qu X, Niu W, Wang R, et al. Solid-state and liquid-free elastomeric ionic conductors with autonomous self-healing ability. Mater Horiz. 2020; 7(11): 2994-3004.

[45] Zhang W, Wu B, Sun S, Wu P. Skin-like mechanoresponsive self-healing ionic elastomer from supramolecular zwitterionic network. Nat Commun. 2021; 12(1): 4082.

[46] Luo C, Chen Y, Huang Z, et al. A fully self-healing and highly stretchable liquid-free ionic conductive elastomer for soft ionotronics. Adv Funct Mater. 2023; 33(49):2304486.

[47] Ding XP, Mao YJ, Huang JF, Lin H. Fabrication of a flexible and transparent all-solid-state ionic conductive elastomer and its sensing properties. Ind Eng Chem Res. 2025; 64(10): 5720-5728.

[48] Shi Y, Yang N, Niu J, Yang S, Wang F. A highly durable rubber-derived lithium-conducting elastomer for lithium metal batteries. Adv Sci. 2022; 9(16):2200553.

[49] Chen Z, Li F, Zhang L, et al. Temperature tolerant all-solid-state touch panel with high stretchablity, transparency and self-healing ability. Chem Eng J. 2023; 451:138672.

[50] Chen J, Gao Y, Shi L, et al. Phase-locked constructing dynamic supramolecular ionic conductive elastomers with superior toughness, autonomous self-healing and recyclability. Nat Commun. 2022; 13(1): 4868.

[51] Yiming B, Han Y, Han Z, et al. A mechanically robust and versatile liquid-free ionic conductive elastomer. Adv Mater. 2021; 33(11):2006111.

[52] Shi P, Wang Y, Wan K, Zhang C, Liu T. A waterproof ion-conducting fluorinated elastomer with 6000% stretchability, superior ionic conductivity, and harsh environment tolerance. Adv Funct Mater. 2022; 32(22):2112293.

[53] Li Z, Wang F, Tang J, et al. High-performance solid-state ionic conductive elastomers via hard-phase enrichment strategy: synergistic enhancement of mechanical properties and ionic conductivity with sustainable LiTFSI recycling. Adv Funct Mater. 2025; 35(41):2503416.

[54] Wang Y, Song LN, Liang S, et al. Design considerations of ionic conductive elastomeric electrolyte for solid-state zinc metal batteries with high safety and long life. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2025; 64(30):e202507137.

[55] Tie J, Mao Z, Zhang L, Zhong Y, Sui X, Xu H. Conductive ionogel with underwater adhesion and stability as multimodal sensor for contactless signal propagation and wearable devices. Compos Part B Eng. 2022; 232:109612.

[56] Guo P, Su A, Wei Y, et al. Healable, highly conductive, flexible and nonflammable supramolecular ionogel electrolytes for lithium ion batteries. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2019; 11(21): 19413-19420.

[57] Zhang Y, Li M, Qin B, et al. Highly transparent, underwater self-healing, and ionic conductive elastomer based on multivalent ion–dipole interactions. Chem Mater. 2020; 32(15): 6310-6317.

[58] Wang Y, Wei Z, Ji T, Bai R, Zhu H. Highly ionic conductive, stretchable, and tough ionogel for flexible solid-state supercapacitor. Small. 2024; 20(20):2307019.

[59] Zhang M, Yu R, Tao X, et al. Mechanically robust and highly conductive ionogels for soft ionotronics. Adv Funct Mater. 2023; 33(10):2208083.

[60] Liang Y, Lin L, Liang H, Zhong Z. Longevous ionogels with high strength, conductivity, adhesion and thermoplasticity. Chem Eng J. 2024; 497:155047.

[61] Yiming B, Guo X, Ali N, et al. Ambiently and mechanically stable ionogels for soft ionotronics. Adv Funct Mater. 2021; 31(33):2102773.

[62] Zhou C, Song X, Wei R, Liu S, Wu Z, Chen H. A conductive ionogel with stretchability, low hysteresis and adjustable adhesion for air/underwater mechanosensing. Chem Eng J. 2024; 499:155992.

[63] Gao J, Chen E, Yuan W, Meng C, Wu J, Guo S. Intrinsically conductive, optical transparent, and underwater self-healing ionogel with on-demand bonding triggered by skin temperature. Small. 2025; 21(23):2502449.

[64] Yu N, Meng Y, Li R, et al. Simultaneously enhancing the mechanical robustness and conductivity of ionogels by in situ formation of coordination complexes as physical crosslinks. J Mater Chem A. 2024; 12(20): 12134-12145.

[65] Sun L, Huang H, Ding Q, et al. Highly transparent, stretchable, and self-healable ionogel for multifunctional sensors, triboelectric nanogenerator, and wearable fibrous electronics. Adv Fiber Mater. 2022; 4(1): 98-107.

[66] Wu Y, Jiang W, Zhang X, et al. Highly conductive, transparent, adhesive, and self-healable ionogel based on a deep eutectic solvent with widely adjustable mechanical strength. Macromol Rapid Comm. 2022; 43(21):2200480.

[67] Hu F, Huang Z, Luo C, Yue K. High-sensitivity and ultralow-hysteresis fluorine-rich ionogel strain sensors for multi-environment contact and contactless sensing. Mater Horiz. 2023; 10(12): 5907-5919.

[68] Zhang Z, Qian L, Cheng J, Ma C, Zhang G. Neural network-inspired polyurea ionogel with mechanical robustness, low hysteresis, and high transparency for soft iontronics. Adv Funct Mater. 2024; 34(37):2402115.

[69] Wang Y, Gao G, Ren X. Graphene assisted ion-conductive hydrogel with super sensitivity for strain sensor. Polymer. 2021; 215:123340.

[70] He X, Dong J, Zhang X, Bai X, Zhang C, Wei D. Self-healing, anti-fatigue, antimicrobial ionic conductive hydrogels based on choline-amino acid polyionic liquids for multi-functional sensors. Chem Eng J. 2022; 435:135168.

[71] Liu Y, Wang Y, Fu Y, et al. Healable and transparent ionic conductive hydrogels based on pnatf as multiple-signal sensors. ACS Appl Polym Mater. 2025; 7(4): 2529-2540.

[72] Bai J, Wang R, Wang X, et al. Biomineral calcium-ion-mediated conductive hydrogels with high stretchability and self-adhesiveness for sensitive iontronic sensors. Cell Rep Phys Sci. 2021; 2(11):100623.

[73] Liu H, Wang X, Cao Y, et al. Freezing-tolerant, highly sensitive strain and pressure sensors assembled from ionic conductive hydrogels with dynamic cross-links. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2020; 12(22): 25334-25344.

[74] Cui W, Zheng Y, Zhu R, et al. Strong tough conductive hydrogels via the synergy of ion-induced cross-linking and salting-out. Adv Funct Mater. 2022; 32(39):2204823.

[75] Zhang C, Wang J, Li S, et al. Construction and characterization of highly stretchable ionic conductive hydrogels for flexible sensors with good anti-freezing performance. Eur Polym J. 2023; 186:111827.

[76] Lei T, Pan J, Wang N, et al. Cold-resistant, highly stretchable ionic conductive hydrogels for intelligent motion recognition in winter sports. Mater Horiz. 2024; 11(5): 1234-1250.

[77] Yu J, Dang C, Liu H, et al. Highly strong and transparent ionic conductive hydrogel as multifunctional sensors. Macromol Mater Eng. 2020; 305(12):2000475.

[78] Yao X, Zhang S, Qian L, et al. Super stretchable, self-healing, adhesive ionic conductive hydrogels based on tailor-made ionic liquid for high-performance strain sensors. Adv Funct Mater. 2022; 32(33):2204565.

[79] Zhou Y, Fei X, Tian J, Xu L, Li Y. A ionic liquid enhanced conductive hydrogel for strain sensing applications. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2022; 606(1): 192-203.

[80] Zhou Y, Wan C, Yang Y, et al. Highly stretchable, elastic, and ionic conductive hydrogel for artificial soft electronics. Adv Funct Mater. 2019; 29(1):1806220.

[81] Wang M, Li L, Zhang T. Hysteresis-free, fatigue-resistant and self-adhesive conductive hydrogel electronics towards multimodal wearable application. Nano Energy. 2024; 126:109586.

[82] Chen G, Zhang Y, Li S, et al. Flexible artificial tactility with excellent robustness and temperature tolerance based on organohydrogel sensor array for robot motion detection and object shape recognition. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(45):2408193.

[83] Li Q, Chen J, Zhang Y, et al. Superelastic, antifreezing, antidrying, and conductive organohydrogels for wearable strain sensors. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021; 13(43): 51546-51555.

[84] Yuan Y, Liu B, Adibeig MR, et al. Microstructured polyelectrolyte elastomer-based ionotronic sensors with high sensitivities and excellent stability for artificial skins. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(11):2310429.

[85] Wang D, Li B, Niu S, Han Z, Ren L. Novel iontronic pressure sensor coupling high sensitivity and wide-range for stiffness identification and long-distance precise motion control. Adv Funct Mater. 2025; 35(4):2413551.

[86] Ha KH, Huh H, Li Z, Lu N. Soft capacitive pressure sensors: trends, challenges, and perspectives. ACS Nano. 2022; 16(3): 3442-3448.

[87] Luo Z, Chen J, Zhu Z, et al. High-resolution and high-sensitivity flexible capacitive pressure sensors enhanced by a transferable electrode array and a micropillar–PVDF film. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021; 13(6): 7635-7649.

[88] Feng C, Hemantha Rajapaksha CP, Jákli a. Ionic elastomers for electric actuators and sensors. Engineering. 2021; 7(5): 581-602.

[89] Wang X, Yu J, Cui Y, Li W. Research progress of flexible wearable pressure sensors. Sens Actuators A Phys. 2021; 330:112838.

[90] Bai N, Wang L, Wang Q, et al. Graded intrafillable architecture-based iontronic pressure sensor with ultra-broad-range high sensitivity. Nat Commun. 2020; 11(1): 209.

[91] Zhang S, Wang F, Peng H, Yan J, Pan G. Flexible highly sensitive pressure sensor based on ionic liquid gel film. ACS Omega. 2018; 3(3): 3014-3021.

Rights & permissions

2026 The Author(s). InfoMat published by UESTC and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.