Emerging single-element ferroelectrics: From theory to experiment

Abstract

In contrast to multi-element ferroelectrics with intricate atomic configurations, single-element ferroelectrics are distinguished by their structural simplicity and low-dimensional nature. In addition, they have been experimentally verified to display robust ferroelectricity at room temperature. These materials are regarded as promising candidates for next-generation flexible optoelectronic devices because of their high electrical conductivity and inherent compatibility with integrated circuits, this review systematically elucidates the underlying mechanisms governing the emergence of ferroelectricity in single-element systems and comprehensively surveys the state-of-the-art fabrication techniques. The fundamental physical properties of several prominent single-element ferroelectrics including tellurium (Te), bismuth (Bi), and black phosphorus (BP) are discussed, highlighting their applications in memristors and optoelectronic devices. Finally, the current research challenges are addressed and future trends in material development, fabrication techniques, and potential applications are presented. The objective of this review is to provide a comprehensive understanding of single-element ferroelectrics, offering valuable insights into their potential for broader applications.

Keywords

bismuth / boundary symmetry breaking / field-effect transistor / single-element ferroelectrics / tellurium

References

[1] Ahmed SR, Baghdadi R, Bernadskiy M, et al. Universal photonic artificial intelligence acceleration. Nature. 2025; 640(8058): 368-374.

[2] Xiang Y, Wang C, Liu C, et al. Subnanosecond flash memory enabled by 2D-enhanced hot-carrier injection. Nature. 2025; 641(8061): 90-97.

[3] Wang B, He X, Luo J, et al. Ultralow-pressure mechanical-motion switching of ferroelectric polarization. Sci Adv. 2025; 11(18):eadr5337.

[4] Bian R, He R, Pan E, et al. Developing fatigue-resistant ferroelectrics using interlayer sliding switching. Science. 2024; 385(6704): 57-62.

[5] Li F, Wang B, Gao X, et al. Ferroelectric materials towards next-generation electromechanical technologies. Science. 2025; 389(6755):eadn4926.

[6] Song Q, Stavrić S, Barone P, et al. Electrical switching of a p-wave magnet. Nature. 2025; 642(8066): 64-70.

[7] Wu M. 100 years of ferroelectricity. Nat Rev Phys. 2021; 3(11): 726.

[8] Wang Y, Tao L, Guzman R, et al. A stable rhombohedral phase in ferroelectric Hf(Zr)_1+xO₂ capacitor with ultralow coercive field. Science. 2023; 381(6657): 558-563.

[9] Wang L, Qi J, Wei W, et al. Bevel-edge epitaxy of ferroelectric rhombohedral boron nitride single crystal. Nature. 2024; 629(8010): 74-79.

[10] Liao W-Q, Zhao D, Tang Y-Y, et al. A molecular perovskite solid solution with piezoelectricity stronger than lead zirconate titanate. Science. 2019; 363(6432): 1206-1210.

[11] Müller M, Yan B, Ko H, et al. Reversible control over the distribution of chemical inhomogeneities in multiferroic BiFeO₃. Nat Commun. 2025; 16(1):3951.

[12] Wang J, Neaton JB, Zheng H, et al. Epitaxial BiFeO₃ multiferroic thin film heterostructures. Science. 2003; 299(5613): 1719-1722.

[13] Zhou Z, Wang S, Zhou Z, et al. Unconventional polarization fatigue in van der Waals layered ferroelectric ionic conductor CuInP₂S₆. Nat Commun. 2023; 14(1):8254.

[14] Park M, Yang JY, Yeom MJ, et al. An artificial neuromuscular junction for enhanced reflexes and oculomotor dynamics based on a ferroelectric CuInP₂S₆/GaN HEMT. Sci Adv. 2023; 9(38):eadh9889.

[15] Yao J, Sun W, Guo J, et al. The first molecular ferroelectric Mott insulator. Adv Mater. 2025; 37(9):2414560.

[16] Lebedev AI. Ab initio calculations of phonon spectra in ATiO₃ perovskite crystals (A = Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra, Cd, Zn, Mg, Ge, Sn, Pb). Phys Solid State. 2009; 51(2): 362-372.

[17] Mack SA, Griffin SM, Neaton JB. Emergence of topological electronic phases in elemental lithium under pressure. Proc Natl Acad sci U S A. 2019; 116(19): 9197-9201.

[18] Shi Y, Guo Y, Wang X, et al. A ferroelectric-like structural transition in a metal. Nat Mater. 2013; 12(11): 1024-1027.

[19] Aktürk E, Aktürk OÖ, Ciraci S. Single and bilayer bismuthene: stability at high temperature and mechanical and electronic properties. Phys Rev B. 2016; 94(1):014115.

[20] Xiao C, Wang F, Yang SA, Lu Y, Feng Y, Zhang S. Elemental ferroelectricity and antiferroelectricity in group-V monolayer. Adv Funct Mater. 2018; 28(17):1707383.

[21] Zhu Z, Cai X, Yi S, et al. Multivalency-driven formation of Te-based monolayer materials: a combined first-principles and experimental study. Phys Rev Lett. 2017; 119(10):106101.

[22] Guo Y, Pan F, Ye M, et al. Monolayer bismuthene-metal contacts: a theoretical study. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2017; 9(27): 23128-23140.

[23] Xu W, Shao Y-P, Wang J-L, Zheng J-D, Tong W-Y, Duan C-G. Origin of metallic ferroelectricity in group-V monolayer black phosphorus. Phys Rev B. 2024; 109(3):035421.

[24] Xu W, Zheng J-D, Tong W-Y, et al. Strain-induced ferroelectric phase transition in group-V monolayer black phosphorus. Adv Quantum Technol. 2023; 6(4):2200169.

[25] Zhang K, Fu C, Kelly S, et al. Thickness-dependent polaron crossover in tellurene. Sci Adv. 2025; 11(2):eads4763.

[26] Gou J, Kong L, He X, et al. The effect of moiré superstructures on topological edge states in twisted bismuthene homojunctions. Sci Adv. 2020; 6(23):eaba2773.

[27] Liang Y, Mao N, Dai Y, Kou L, Huang B, Ma Y. Intertwined ferroelectricity and topological state in two-dimensional multilayer. NPJ Comput Mater. 2021; 7(1):172.

[28] Zhao J, Li L, Li P, et al. Realization of 2D metals at the Ångström thickness limit. Nature. 2025; 639(8054): 354-359.

[29] Jia J, Jang SK, Lai S, et al. Plasma-treated thickness-controlled two-dimensional black phosphorus and its electronic transport properties. ACS Nano. 2015; 9(9): 8729-8736.

[30] Zhou J, Zhang G, Wang W, et al. Phase-engineered synthesis of atomically thin te single crystals with high on-state currents. Nat Commun. 2024; 15(1): 1435.

[31] Zhang J, Zhang J, Qi Y, et al. Room-temperature ferroelectric, piezoelectric and resistive switching behaviors of single-element Te nanowires. Nat Commun. 2024; 15(1): 7648.

[32] Wang Y, Xiao C, Chen M, et al. Two-dimensional ferroelectricity and switchable spin-textures in ultra-thin elemental Te multilayers. Mater Horiz. 2018; 5(3): 521-528.

[33] Mutee Ur Rehman CHYL. Topology and ferroelectricity in group-V monolayers. Chin Phys B. 2020; 29(5):57304-057304.

[34] Li Y, Zhao M, Ma X, et al. Reconfigurable, nonvolatile, optoelectronic synaptic memtransistor based on MoS₂/Te van der Waals heterostructures. Adv Funct Mater. 2025; 35(34):2423333.

[35] Wu S, Chen Y, Wang X, et al. Ultra-sensitive polarization-resolved black phosphorus homojunction photodetector defined by ferroelectric domains. Nat Commun. 2022; 13(1): 3198.

[36] Zhang J, Zhang J, Qi Y, et al. Observation of Room-Temperature Ferroelectricity in Elemental Te Nanowires. arXiv preprint arXiv:221104066. 2022.

[37] Zhong S, Zhang X, Gou J, et al. Lone-pair activated ferroelectricity and stable charged domain wall in Bi monolayer. Nat Commun. 2024; 15(1): 8322.

[38] Gou J, Bai H, Zhang X, et al. Two-dimensional ferroelectricity in a single-element bismuth monolayer. Nature. 2023; 617(7959): 67-72.

[39] Zhang B, Hou W, Ye X, Fu S, Xie Y. 1D tellurium nanostructures: photothermally assisted morphology-controlled synthesis and applications in preparing functional nanoscale materials. Adv Funct Mater. 2007; 17(3): 486-492.

[40] He P, Hu X, Hu Z, et al. Preparation of tellurium nanowires and its application in ultrafast photonics. Jol. 2022; 252:119335.

[41] Jiang H, Zheng L, Liu Z, et al. Two-dimensional materials: from mechanical properties to flexible mechanical sensors. InfoMat. 2020; 2(6): 1077-1094.

[42] Boradia VM, Malhotra H, Thakkar JS, et al. Mycobacterium tuberculosis acquires iron by cell-surface sequestration and internalization of human holo-transferrin. Nat Commun. 2014; 5(1):4730.

[43] Gong C, Kim EM, Wang Y, Lee G, Zhang X. Multiferroicity in atomic van der Waals heterostructures. Nat Commun. 2019; 10(1): 2657.

[44] Horiuchi S, Tokura Y. Organic ferroelectrics. Nat Mater. 2008; 7(5): 357-366.

[45] Ramesh R, Spaldin NA. Multiferroics: progress and prospects in thin films. Nat Mater. 2007; 6(1): 21-29.

[46] Peng H, Qi J-C, Liu Y-S, et al. Homochirality in ferroelectrochemistry. Chin J Chem. 2024; 42(10): 1133-1144.

[47] Wang Z, Dong S. Large in-plane negative piezoelectricity and giant nonlinear optical susceptibility in elementary ferroelectric monolayers. Phys Rev B. 2023; 108(23):235423.

[48] Zhu J, Fu B, Zhao H, Hu W. Theoretical design of monoelemental ferroelectricity with tunable spin textures in bilayer tellurium. Phys Rev B. 2024; 110(12):125434.

[49] Hu J, Xiong W, Cai C, et al. Optical response of Te-based monolayer materials from first principles. Appl Phys Lett. 2019; 115(15):151104.

[50] Qian Z, Zhou J, Wang H, Liu S. Shift current response in elemental two-dimensional ferroelectrics. NPJ Comput Mater. 2023; 9(1):67.

[51] Takao Y, Morita A. Electronic structure of black phosphorus: tight binding approach. Physica B+C. 1981; 105(1): 93-98.

[52] Nahas S, Bajaj A, Bhowmick S. Polymorphs of two dimensional phosphorus and arsenic: insight from an evolutionary search. Phys Chem Chem Phys. 2017; 19(18): 11282-11288.

[53] Gong K, Zhang L, Ji W, Guo H. Electrical contacts to monolayer black phosphorus: a first-principles investigation. Phys Rev B. 2014; 90(12):125441.

[54] Rao G, Fang H, Zhou T, et al. Robust piezoelectricity with spontaneous polarization in monolayer tellurene and multilayer tellurium film at room temperature for reliable memory. Adv Mater. 2022; 34(35):2204697.

[55] Ma W, Lu J, Wan B, et al. Piezoelectricity in multilayer black phosphorus for piezotronics and nanogenerators. Adv Mater. 2020; 32(7):1905795.

[56] Zhang Z-H, Yang L-Z, Qin H-J, et al. Direct observations of spontaneous in-plane electronic polarization in 2D Te films. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(40):2405590.

[57] Zha J, Dong D, Huang H, et al. Electronics and optoelectronics based on tellurium. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(45):2408969.

[58] Qin J-K, Liao P-Y, Si M, et al. Raman response and transport properties of tellurium atomic chains encapsulated in nanotubes. Nat Electron. 2020; 3(3): 141-147.

[59] Yang Z, Wu Z, Lyu Y, Hao J. Centimeter-scale growth of two-dimensional layered high-mobility bismuth films by pulsed laser deposition. InfoMat. 2019; 1(1): 98-107.

[60] Tong X, Liu K, Zeng M, Fu L. Vapor-phase growth of high-quality wafer-scale two-dimensional materials. InfoMat. 2019; 1(4): 460-478.

[61] Dai M, Wang C, Qiang B, et al. Long-wave infrared photothermoelectric detectors with ultrahigh polarization sensitivity. Nat Commun. 2023; 14(1): 3421.

[62] Shen C, Liu Y, Wu J, et al. Tellurene photodetector with high gain and wide bandwidth. ACS Nano. 2020; 14(1): 303-310.

[63] Wang Y, Qiu G, Wang R, et al. Field-effect transistors made from solution-grown two-dimensional tellurene. Nat Electron. 2018; 1(4): 228-236.

[64] Laocharoensuk R, Palaniappan K, Smith NA, et al. Flow-based solution–liquid–solid nanowire synthesis. Nat Nanotechnol. 2013; 8(9): 660-666.

[65] Amani M, Tan C, Zhang G, et al. Solution-synthesized high-mobility tellurium nanoflakes for short-wave infrared photodetectors. ACS Nano. 2018; 12(7): 7253-7263.

[66] Li Y, Zhao Y, Wu G, Zhao J. Facile and efficient synthesis of bismuth nanowires for improved photocatalytic activity. Inorg Chem. 2016; 55(10): 4897-4905.

[67] Liang F, Qian H. Synthesis of tellurium nanowires and their transport property. Mater Chem Phys. 2009; 113(2): 523-526.

[68] Yu H, Gibbons PC, Buhro WE. Bismuth, tellurium, and bismuth telluride nanowires. J Mater Chem. 2004; 14(4): 595-602.

[69] Liu Y, Chen M, Yang S. Chemical functionalization of 2D black phosphorus. InfoMat. 2021; 3(3): 231-251.

[70] Liu M, Feng S, Hou Y, et al. High yield growth and doping of black phosphorus with tunable electronic properties. Mater Today. 2020; 36: 91-101.

[71] Eswaraiah V, Zeng Q, Long Y, Liu Z. Black phosphorus nanosheets: synthesis, characterization and applications. Small. 2016; 12(26): 3480-3502.

[72] Schusteritsch G, Uhrin M, Pickard CJ. Single-layered Hittorf's phosphorus: a wide-bandgap high mobility 2D material. Nano Lett. 2016; 16(5): 2975-2980.

[73] Kang J, Wood JD, Wells SA, et al. Solvent exfoliation of electronic-grade, two-dimensional black phosphorus. ACS Nano. 2015; 9(4): 3596-3604.

[74] Wu K, Wang H, Yang M, et al. Gold-template-assisted mechanical exfoliation of large-area 2D layers enables efficient and precise construction of Moiré superlattices. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(23):2313511.

[75] Wang Z, Yan X, Hou Q, et al. Scalable high yield exfoliation for monolayer nanosheets. Nat Commun. 2023; 14(1): 236.

[76] Wang C, You L, Cobden D, et al. Towards two-dimensional van der Waals ferroelectrics. Nat Mater. 2023; 22(5): 542-552.

[77] Zha J, Shi S, Chaturvedi A, et al. Electronic/optoelectronic memory device enabled by tellurium-based 2D van der Waals heterostructure for in-sensor reservoir computing at the optical communication band. Adv Mater. 2023; 35(20):2211598.

[78] Wu M. Two-dimensional van der Waals ferroelectrics: scientific and technological opportunities. ACS Nano. 2021; 15(6): 9229-9237.

[79] Liu F. Mechanical exfoliation of large area 2D materials from vdW crystals. Prog Surf Sci. 2021; 96(2):100626.

[80] Lin S, Li W, Chen Z, et al. Tellurium as a high-performance elemental thermoelectric. Nat Commun. 2016; 7(1):10287.

[81] Huang Y, Pan Y-H, Yang R, et al. Universal mechanical exfoliation of large-area 2D crystals. Nat Commun. 2020; 11(1): 2453.

[82] Huang Y, Wang Y-K, Huang X-Y, et al. An efficient route to prepare suspended monolayer for feasible optical and electronic characterizations of two-dimensional materials. InfoMat. 2022; 4(2):e12274.

[83] Huang Y, Qiao J, He K, et al. Interaction of black phosphorus with oxygen and water. Chem Mater. 2016; 28(22): 8330-8339.

[84] Heremans JP, Cava RJ, Samarth N. Tetradymites as thermoelectrics and topological insulators. Nat Rev Mater. 2017; 2(10):17049.

[85] Huang J, You C, Wu B, et al. Enhanced photothermoelectric conversion in self-rolled tellurium photodetector with geometry-induced energy localization. Light Sci Appl. 2024; 13(1):153.

[86] Lee CW, Yoo C, Han SS, et al. Centimeter-scale tellurium oxide films for artificial optoelectronic synapses with broadband responsiveness and mechanical flexibility. ACS Nano. 2024; 18(28): 18635-18649.

[87] Gilbert MJ. Topological electronics. Commun Phys. 2021; 4(1):70.

[88] Ma C, Yan J, Huang Y, Wang C, Yang G. The optical duality of tellurium nanoparticles for broadband solar energy harvesting and efficient photothermal conversion. Sci Adv. 2018; 4(8):eaas9894.

[89] Rana MM, Chowdhury MA, Alam MJ, Khandaker MR, Ali Y. Physical and electrochemical performances of novel tellurium composite films as anode applications in energy storage systems. Heliyon. 2024; 10(20):e39083.

[90] Karmakar S, Saha-Dasgupta T. High-performance thermoelectric properties of strained two-dimensional tellurium. Phys Rev Mater. 2021; 5(12):124006.

[91] Shi Z, Cao R, Khan K, et al. Two-dimensional tellurium: Progress, challenges, and prospects. Nano-Micro Lett. 2020; 12(1): 99.

[92] Zhu T, Zhang Y, Wei X, Jiang M, Xu H. The rise of two-dimensional tellurium for next-generation electronics and optoelectronics. Front Phys. 2023; 18(3):33601.

[93] Calavalle F, Suárez-Rodríguez M, Martín-García B, et al. Gate-tuneable and chirality-dependent charge-to-spin conversion in tellurium nanowires. Nat Mater. 2022; 21(5): 526-532.

[94] Kramer A, de Van Put ML, Hinkle CL, Vandenberghe WG. Tellurium as a successor of silicon for extremely scaled nanowires: a first-principles study. npj 2D Mater Appl. 2020; 4(1):10.

[95] Sharma T, Thakur R, Sharma R. Structural, electronic and dielectric properties of tellurium 1-D nanostructures: a DFT study. Appl Phys A Mater Sci Process. 2021; 128(1):41.

[96] Furukawa T, Shimokawa Y, Kobayashi K, Itou T. Observation of current-induced bulk magnetization in elemental tellurium. Nat Commun. 2017; 8(1): 954.

[97] Apte A, Kouser S, Safi Samghabadi F, et al. Piezo-response in two-dimensional α-tellurene films. Mater Today. 2021; 44: 40-47.

[98] Yue Y, Hou Y, Zheng M, Yan X, Fu J, Zhu M. High power density in a piezoelectric energy harvesting ceramic by optimizing the sintering temperature of nanocrystalline powders. J Eur Ceram Soc. 2017; 37(15): 4625-4630.

[99] Qiu G, Charnas A, Niu C, Wang Y, Wu W, Ye PD. The resurrection of tellurium as an elemental two-dimensional semiconductor. npj 2D Mater Appl. 2022; 6(1):17.

[100] Zhang N, Zhao G, Li L, et al. Magnetotransport signatures of Weyl physics and discrete scale invariance in the elemental semiconductor tellurium. Proc Natl Acad sci U S A. 2020; 117(21): 11337-11343.

[101] Doi T, Nakao K, Kamimura H. The valence band structure of tellurium. I. The k·p perturbation method. J Phys Soc Japan. 1970; 28(1): 36-43.

[102] Kanatzidis M, Sun H, Dehnen S. Bismuth—the magic element. Inorg Chem. 2020; 59(6): 3341-3343.

[103] Tang CJ, Li GH, Dou XC, Zhang YX, Li L. Thermal expansion behaviors of bismuth nanowires. J Phys Chem C Nanomater Interfaces. 2009; 113(14): 5422-5427.

[104] Xu K, Wang L, Xu X, Dou SX, Hao W, Du Y. Two dimensional bismuth-based layered materials for energy-related applications. Energy Storage Mater. 2019; 19: 446-463.

[105] Schindler F, Wang Z, Vergniory MG, et al. Higher-order topology in bismuth. Nat Phys. 2018; 14(9): 918-924.

[106] Wang F, Yang S, Wu J, et al. Emerging two-dimensional bismuth oxychalcogenides for electronics and optoelectronics. InfoMat. 2021; 3(11): 1251-1271.

[107] Pang Y, Nöthling N, Leutzsch M, et al. Synthesis and isolation of a triplet bismuthinidene with a quenched magnetic response. Science. 2023; 380(6649): 1043-1048.

[108] Dillner U, Schnelle W. Electrical and galvanomagnetic properties of undoped and doped polycrystalline bismuth films. Part II: analysis in an anisotropic one-carrier model. Physica Status Solidi A. 1989; 116(1): 337-342.

[109] Alluri NR, Maria Joseph Raj NP, Khandelwal G, et al. Crystallinity modulation originates ferroelectricity like nature in piezoelectric selenium. Nano Energy. 2022; 95:107008.

[110] Jnawali G, Hattab H, Bobisch CA, et al. Homoepitaxial growth of Bi(111). Phys Rev B. 2008; 78(3):035321.

[111] Scott SA, Kral MV, Brown SA. A crystallographic orientation transition and early stage growth characteristics of thin Bi films on HOPG. Surf Sci. 2005; 587(3): 175-184.

[112] Yang F, Miao L, Wang ZF, et al. Spatial and energy distribution of topological edge states in single Bi(111) bilayer. Phys Rev Lett. 2012; 109(1):016801.

[113] Zhong S, Zhang X, Liu S, Yang SA, Lu Y. Giant and nonanalytic negative piezoelectric response in elemental group-Va ferroelectric monolayers. Phys Rev Lett. 2023; 131(23):236801.

[114] Hong Y, Deng J, Kong Q, et al. Origin of different piezoelectric responses in elemental Sb and Bi monolayers. Phys Rev B. 2024; 109(3):035204.

[115] Yu H, Ji J, Luo W, Gong X, Xiang H. Recent advances in unconventional ferroelectrics and multiferroics. Adv Mater. 2025;e07070.

[116] Cheng L, Liu H, Tan X, et al. Thermoelectric properties of a monolayer bismuth. J Phys Chem C. 2014; 118(2): 904-910.

[117] Whittle R, Dudzik E, McGovern IT, et al. Surface electronic structure of monolayer Bi on InP(110). Surf Sci. 1993; 287–288: 554-558.

[118] Xia F, Wang H, Jia Y. Rediscovering black phosphorus as an anisotropic layered material for optoelectronics and electronics. Nat Commun. 2014; 5(1):4458.

[119] Liang L, Wang J, Lin W, Sumpter BG, Meunier V, Pan M. Electronic bandgap and edge reconstruction in phosphorene materials. Nano Lett. 2014; 14(11): 6400-6406.

[120] Li L, Yang J. On mechanical behaviors of few-layer black phosphorus. Sci Rep. 2018; 8(1): 3227.

[121] Zhang B, Zhang L, Yang N, et al. 2D Young's modulus of black phosphorene with different layers. J Phys Chem C. 2022; 126(2): 1094-1098.

[122] Nakada N, Kawasaki S, Kogakura Y, et al. Matrix switch related to microstructural connectivity and its effect on strength in metals with duplex microstructure. Mater Sci Eng A Mater Struct Prop Microstruct Process. 2017; 690: 270-276.

[123] Li Y, Yang S, Li J. Modulation of the electronic properties of ultrathin black phosphorus by strain and electrical field. J Phys Chem C Nanomater Interfaces. 2014; 118(41): 23970-23976.

[124] Lan S, Rodrigues S, Kang L, et al. Visualizing optical phase anisotropy in black phosphorus. ACS Photonics. 2016; 3(7): 1176-1181.

[125] Lee D-H, Lee S-T, Kim J-S, et al. Analysis of properties of partially stabilized zirconia-doped Na⁺-beta-alumina prepared by calcining-cum-sintering process. Mater Res Bull. 2017; 96: 143-148.

[126] Quereda J, San-Jose P, Parente V, et al. Strong modulation of optical properties in black phosphorus through strain-engineered rippling. Nano Lett. 2016; 16(5): 2931-2937.

[127] Zhou S, Bao C, Fan B, et al. Pseudospin-selective Floquet band engineering in black phosphorus. Nature. 2023; 614(7946): 75-80.

[128] Huang L, Li Y, Wei Z, et al. Strain induced piezoelectric effect in black phosphorus and MoS₂ van der Waals heterostructure. Sci Rep. 2015; 5(1):16448.

[129] Zhang T, Chen Y, He Z, et al. High-quality narrow black phosphorus nanoribbons with nearly atomically smooth edges and well-defined edge orientation. Nat Mater. 2025; 24(9): 1375-1386.

[130] Zhang H, Zhao L, Zhang R, et al. Elemental topological ferroelectrics and polar metals of few-layer materials. Phys Rev Res. 2024; 6(2):023208.

[131] Niu C, Long L, Zhang Y, et al. Ultralow voltage operation of p- and n-FETs enabled by self-formed gate dielectric and metal contacts on 2D tellurium. Adv Mater. 2025; 37(20):2418142.

[132] Kim S, Myeong G, Shin W, et al. Thickness-controlled black phosphorus tunnel field-effect transistor for low-power switches. Nat Nanotechnol. 2020; 15(3): 203-206.

[133] Li R, Dui J, Fu Y, Xu Y, Zhou S. Ultrahigh power factor and enhanced thermoelectric performance of individual Te/TiS₂ nanocables. Nanotechnology. 2016; 27(41):415704.

[134] Calarco R, Arciprete F. Keep it simple and switch to pure tellurium. Science. 2021; 374(6573): 1321-1322.

[135] Lee YT, Kwon H, Kim JS, et al. Nonvolatile ferroelectric memory circuit using black phosphorus nanosheet-based field-effect transistors with P(VDF-TrFE) polymer. ACS Nano. 2015; 9(10): 10394-10401.

[136] Chen J, Fan X, Li J, et al. Exploring the applications of ScXI (X = S, Se, Te) monolayers for microelectronic nanodevices and photoelectric sensors. Phys Rev Appl. 2024; 21(5):054053.

[137] Zuo X, Cheng J, Liang Y, et al. High-efficiency photoelectric detector based on a p–n homojunction of monolayer black phosphorus. Phys Rev Appl. 2023; 20(2):024027.

[138] Li Q, Fang S, Yang X, et al. Photodetector based on elemental ferroelectric black phosphorus-like bismuth. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024; 16(46): 63786-63794.

[139] Zhang K, Li H, Mu H, et al. Spatially resolved light-induced ferroelectric polarization in α-In₂Se₃/Te heterojunctions. Adv Mater. 2024; 36(38):2405233.

[140] Sebastian A, Le Gallo M, Khaddam-Aljameh R, Eleftheriou E. Memory devices and applications for in-memory computing. Nat Nanotechnol. 2020; 15(7): 529-544.

[141] Sangwan VK, Hersam MC. Neuromorphic nanoelectronic materials. Nat Nanotechnol. 2020; 15(7): 517-528.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2026 The Author(s). InfoMat published by UESTC and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.