Transmittance contrast-induced photocurrent: A general strategy for self-powered photodetectors based on MXene electrodes

Abstract

The regulation of carrier generation and transport by Schottky junctions enables effective optoelectronic conversion in optoelectronic devices. A simple and general strategy to spontaneously generate photocurrent is of great significance for self-powered photodetectors but is still being pursued. Here, we propose that a photocurrent can be induced at zero bias by the transmittance contrast of MXene electrodes in MXene/semiconductor Schottky junctions. Two MXene electrodes with a large transmittance contrast (84%) between the thin and thick zones were deposited on the surface of a semiconductor wafer using a simple and robust solution route. Kelvin probe force microscopy tests indicated that the photocurrent at zero bias could be attributed to asymmetric carrier generation and transport between the two Schottky junctions under illumination. As a demonstration, the MXene/GaN ultraviolet (UV) photodetector exhibits excellent performance superior to its counterpart without transmittance contrast, including high responsivity (81 mA W^–1), fast response speed (less than 31 and 29 ms) and ultrahigh on/off ratio (1.33 × 10⁶), and good UV imaging capability. Furthermore, this strategy has proven to be universal for first- to third-generation semiconductors such as Si and GaAs. These results provide a facile and cost-effective route for high-performance self-powered photodetectors and demonstrate the versatile and promising applications of MXene electrodes in optoelectronics.

Keywords

GaN / MXene / Schottky junction / self-powered photodetector / transmittance contrast

References

[1] García de Arquer FP, Armin A, Meredith P, Sargent EH. Solution-processed semiconductors for next-generation photodetectors. Nat Rev Mater. 2017;2(3):16100.

[2] Wang B, Zhong S, Xu P, Zhang H. Booming development and present advances of two dimensional MXenes for photodetectors. Chem Eng J. 2021;403:126336.

[3] Cai S, Xu X, Yang W, Chen J, Fang X. Materials and designs for wearable photodetectors. Adv Mater. 2019;31(18):1808138.

[4] Su L, Yang W, Cai J, Chen H, Fang X. Self-powered ultraviolet photodetectors driven by built-in electric field. Small. 2017;13(45):1701687.

[5] Tian W, Wang Y, Chen L, Li L. Self-powered nanoscale photodetectors. Small. 2017;13(45):1701848.

[6] Qiao H, Huang Z, Ren X, et al. Self-powered photodetectors based on 2D materials. Adv Opt Mater. 2019;8(1):1900765.

[7] Wen Z, Fu J, Han L, et al. Toward self-powered photodetection enabled by triboelectric nanogenerators. J Mater Chem C. 2018;6(44):11893-11902.

[8] Chen HY, Liu KW, Chen X, et al. Realization of a self-powered ZnO MSM UV photodetector with high responsivity using an asymmetric pair of Au electrodes. J Mater Chem C. 2014;2(45):9689-9694.

[9] Wang S, Chen R, Ren Y, et al. Highly-rectifying graphene/GaN Schottky contact for self-powered UV photodetector. IEEE Photonic Tech L. 2021;33(4):213-216.

[10] Meng J, Li Z. Schottky-contacted nanowire sensors. Adv Mater. 2020;32(28):2000130.

[11] Song W, Liu Q, Chen J, et al. Interface engineering Ti₃C₂ MXene/silicon self-powered photodetectors with high responsivity and detectivity for weak light applications. Small. 2021;17(23):2100439.

[12] Fang H, Zheng C, Wu L, et al. Solution-processed self-powered transparent ultraviolet photodetectors with ultrafast response speed for high-performance communication system. Adv Funct Mater. 2019;29(20):1809013.

[13] Dai M, Chen H, Wang F, et al. Ultrafast and sensitive self-powered photodetector featuring self-limited depletion region and fully depleted channel with van der Waals contacts. ACS Nano. 2020;14(7):9098-9106.

[14] Zhang M, Hu Y, Wang S, et al. A nanomesh electrode for self-driven perovskite photodetectors with tunable asymmetric Schottky junctions. Nanoscale. 2021;13(40):17147-17155.

[15] Zhou C, Raju S, Li B, Chan M, Chai Y, Yang CY. Self-driven metal-semiconductor-metal WSe₂ photodetector with asymmetric contact geometries. Adv Funct Mater. 2018;28(45):1802954.

[16] Ezhilmaran B, Patra A, Benny S, et al. Recent developments in the photodetector applications of Schottky diodes based on 2D materials. J Mater Chem C. 2021;9(19):6122-6150.

[17] Fang H, Lin Z, Wang X, et al. Infrared light gated MoS₂ field effect transistor. Opt Express. 2015;23(25):031908.

[18] Koppens FHL, Mueller T, Avouris P, Ferrari AC, Vitiello MS, Polini M. Photodetectors based on graphene, other two-dimensional materials and hybrid systems. Nat Nanotechnol. 2014;9(10):780-793.

[19] Chen Y, Wang Y, Wang Z, et al. Unipolar barrier photodetectors based on van der Waals heterostructures. Nat Electron. 2021;4(5):357-363.

[20] Yin L, Li Y, Yao X, et al. MXenes for solar cells. Nano-Micro Lett. 2021;13(1):78.

[21] VahidMohammadi A, Rosen J, Gogotsi Y. The world of two-dimensional carbides and nitrides (MXenes). Science. 2021;372(6547):abf1581.

[22] Yang Q, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Recent progress of MXene-based nanomaterials in flexible energy storage and electronic devices. Energy Environ Mater. 2018;1(4):183-195.

[23] Zhang YZ, Wang Y, Jiang Q, el-Demellawi JK, Kim H, Alshareef HN. MXene printing and patterned coating for device applications. Adv Mater. 2020;32(21):1908486.

[24] Luo L, Huang Y, Cheng K, et al. MXene-GaN van der Waals metal-semiconductor junctions for high performance multiple quantum well photodetectors. Light-Sci Appl. 2021;10(1):177.

[25] Ma H, Jia L, Lin Y, et al. A self-powered photoelectrochemical ultraviolet photodetector based on Ti₃C₂T_x/TiO₂ in situ formed heterojunctions. Nanotechnology. 2021;33(7):075502.

[26] Xu H, Ren A, Wu J, Wang Z. Recent advances in 2D MXenes for photodetection. Adv Funct Mater. 2020;30(24):2000907.

[27] Kang Z, Ma Y, Tan X, et al. MXene-silicon van der Waals Heterostructures for high-speed self-driven photodetectors. Adv Electron Mater. 2017;3(9):1700165.

[28] Deng W, Huang H, Jin H, et al. All-sprayed-processable, large-area, and flexible perovskite/MXene-based photodetector arrays for photocommunication. Adv Opt Mater. 2019;7(6):1801521.

[29] Ma H, Fang H, Liu Y, et al. Fully transparent ultraviolet photodetector with ultrahigh responsivity enhanced by MXene-induced photogating effect. Adv Opt Mater. 2023;11(12):2300393.

[30] Song W, Chen J, Li Z, Fang X. Self-powered MXene/GaN van der Waals heterojunction ultraviolet photodiodes with superhigh efficiency and stable current outputs. Adv Mater. 2021;33(27):2101059.

[31] Yang Y, Jeon J, Park JH, et al. Plasmonic transition metal carbide electrodes for high-performance InSe photodetectors. ACS Nano. 2019;13(8):8804-8810.

[32] Sun Y, Liu Z, Ding Y, Chen Z. Flexible broadband photodetectors enabled by MXene/PbS quantum dots hybrid structure. IEEE Electr Device Lett. 2021;42(12):1814-1817.

[33] Perumal Veeramalai C, Yang S, Zhi R, et al. Solution-processed, self-powered broadband CH₃NH₃PbI₃ photodetectors driven by asymmetric electrodes. Adv Opt Mater. 2020;8(15):2000215.

[34] Han J, Fang C, Yu M, Cao J, Huang K. A high-performance Schottky photodiode with asymmetric metal contacts constructed on 2D Bi₂O₂Se. Adv Electron Mater. 2022;8(7):2100987.

[35] Liu J, Ren JC, Shen T, et al. Asymmetric Schottky contacts in van der Waals metal-semiconductor-metal structures based on two-dimensional Janus materials. Research. 2020;2020:6727524.

[36] Guo F, Yang B, Yuan Y, et al. A nanocomposite ultraviolet photodetector based on interfacial trap-controlled charge injection. Nat Nanotechnol. 2012;7(12):798-802.

[37] Zhang Y, Wang YC, Wang L, Zhu L, Wang ZL. Highly sensitive photoelectric detection and imaging enhanced by the pyro-phototronic effect based on a photoinduced dynamic Schottky effect in 4H-SiC. Adv Mater. 2022;34(35):2204363.

[38] Sun Y, Jiang L, Wang Z, et al. Multiwavelength high-detectivity MoS₂ photodetectors with Schottky contacts. ACS Nano. 2022;16(12):20272-20280.

[39] Gao XD, Fei GT, Zhang Y, Zhang LD, Hu ZM. All-optical-input transistors: light-controlled enhancement of plasmon-induced photocurrent. Adv Funct Mater. 2018;28(40):1802288.

[40] Lipatov A, Alhabeb M, Lukatskaya MR, Boson A, Gogotsi Y, Sinitskii A. Effect of synthesis on quality, electronic properties and environmental stability of individual monolayer Ti₃C₂ MXene flakes. Adv Electron Mater. 2016;2(12):1600255.

[41] Naguib M, Kurtoglu M, Presser V, et al. Two-dimensional nanocrystals produced by exfoliation of Ti₃AlC₂. Adv Mater. 2011;23(37):4248-4253.

[42] Kurra N, Ahmed B, Gogotsi Y, Alshareef HN. MXene-on-paper coplanar microsupercapacitors. Adv Energy Mater. 2016;6(24):1601372.

[43] Wang Z, Kim H, Alshareef HN. Oxide thin-film electronics using all-MXene electrical contacts. Adv Mater. 2018;30(15):1706656.

[44] Yi C, Chen Y, Kang Z, et al. MXene-GaN van der Waals heterostructures for high-speed self-driven photodetectors and light-emitting diodes. Adv Electron Mater. 2021;7(5):2000955.

[45] Li P, Shi H, Chen K, et al. Construction of GaN/Ga₂O₃ p-n junction for an extremely high responsivity self-powered UV photodetector. J Mater Chem C. 2017;5(40):10562-10570.

[46] Peng M, Liu Y, Yu A, et al. Flexible self-powered GaN ultraviolet photoswitch with piezo-phototronic effect enhanced on/off ratio. ACS Nano. 2015;10(1):1572-1579.

[47] Yu N, Li H, Qi Y. NiO nanosheet/GaN heterojunction self-powered ultraviolet photodetector grown by a solution method. Opt Mater Express. 2018;9(1):26-34.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2024 2024 The Authors. InfoMat published by UESTC and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.