Human versus artificial intelligence feedback: A comparative study of teacher-guided ChatGPT and teacher feedback in English as a foreign language writing development

Abstract

This study was conducted during the 2025–2026 academic year at Tishk International University in Iraq. It aims to compare teacher-guided ChatGPT feedback and teacher feedback on the writing development of architecture students learning English as a foreign language. Students were divided into control and experimental groups, and a seven-week study was conducted with pre- and post-tests administered. During the study, the control group received teacher feedback, while the experimental group received ChatGPT feedback under continuous teacher guidance and pedagogical supervision, rather than unrestricted artificial intelligence use. Analysis of the data revealed that although both groups showed improvement in writing performance, the experimental group’s post-test scores increased significantly more than those of the control group. Additionally, students in the experimental group reported positive perceptions of ChatGPT feedback. In conclusion, ChatGPT, when used under teacher guidance, is an effective tool for supporting students’ writing skills.

Keywords

Artificial intelligence feedback / ChatGPT / English as a foreign language writing / Student perceptions / Teacher feedback / Writing development

References

[1] Alzahrani, F. K. J., & Alotaibi, H. H. (2024). The impact of artificial intelligence on enhancing EFL writing skills among high school students. Journal of Educational and Human Sciences, (34), 226-240. https://doi.org/10.33193/JEAHS.34.2024.482

[2] Asadi, M., Ebadi, S., & Mohammadi, L. (2025). The impact of integrating ChatGPT with teachers’ feedback on EFL writing skills. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 56, 101766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101766

[3] Atchley, P., Pannell, H., Wofford, K., Hopkins, M., & Atchley, R. A. (2024). Human and AI collaboration in the higher education environment: Opportunities and concerns. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 9, Article 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235—024—00547—9

[4] Bai, Y., Kadavath, S., Kundu, S., Askell, A., Kernion, J., Jones, A., ... & Kaplan, J. (2022). Constitutional AI: Harmlessness from AI feedback . arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2212.08073

[5] Barrot, J. S. (2023). Using ChatGPT for second language writing: Pitfalls and potentials. Assessing Writing, 57, 100745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2023.100745

[6] Baskara, F. R. (2023). Integrating ChatGPT into EFL writing instruction: Benefits and challenges. International Journal of Education and Learning, 5(1), 44-55. https://doi.org/10.31763/ijele.v5i1.858

[7] Cheng, X., Zhang, L. J., & Yan, Q. (2025). Exploring teacher written feedback in EFL writing classrooms: Beliefs and practices in interaction. Language Teaching Research, 29(1), 385-415. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211057665

[8] Dwivedi, Y. K., Kshetri, N., Hughes, L., Slade, E. L., Jeyaraj, A., Kar, A. K., ... & Wright, R. (2023). Opinion paper: “So what if ChatGPT wrote it?” Multidisciplinary perspectives on opportunities, challenges and implications of generative conversational AI for research, practice and policy. International Journal of Information Management, 71, 102642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2023.102642

[9] Ferris, D. R. (2014). Responding to student writing: Teachers’ philosophies and practices. Assessing Writing, 19, 6-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2013.09.004

[10] Gardazi, N. M., Daud, A., Malik, M. K., Bukhari, A., Alsahfi, T., & Alshemaimri, B. (2025). BERT applications in natural language processing: A review. Artificial Intelligence Review, 58(6), 166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462—025—11162—5

[11] Guo, K., & Wang, D. (2024). To resist it or to embrace it? Examining ChatGPT’s potential to support teacher feedback in EFL writing. Education and Information Technologies, 29(7), 8435-8463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639—023—12146—0

[12] Guo, S., Zheng, Y., & Zhai, X. (2024). Artificial intelligence in education research during 2013—2023: A review based on bibliometric analysis. Education and Information Technologies, 29(13), 16387-16409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639—024—12491—8

[13] Haerazi, H . (2023). MALL integrated with metacognitive skills to promote preservice English teachers. Journal on English as a Foreign Language, 13(2), 581-609. https://doi.org/10.23971/jefl.v13i2.6536

[14] Hafidhoh, H., & Augus, C. (2025). Teacher feedback and student writing improvement in EFL classrooms: A longitudinal study. Bulletin of Scientific Research in English Education, 2(1), 49-61. https://doi.org/10.59261/bsree.v2i1.11

[15] Han, J., Yoo, H., Kim, Y., Myung, J., Kim, M., Lim, H., ... & Oh, A. (2023). RECIPE: How to integrate ChatGPT into EFL writing education. In Proceedings of the Tenth ACM Conference on Learning@Scale (pp. 416-420). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3573051.3596200

[16] Harry, A., & Sayudin, S. (2023). Role of AI in education. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 2(3), 260-268. https://doi.org/10.58631/injurity.v2i3.52

[17] Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006). Feedback on second language students’ writing. Language Teaching, 39(2), 83-101. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444806003399

[18] Imran, M., Almusharraf, N., & Dalbani, H. (2024). Future of writing in higher education: A review of prospective use of artificial intelligence and ChatGPT in academia. In Innovative pedagogical practices for higher education 4.0 (pp. 108-125). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003400691—7

[19] Jmaiel, H. A., Abukhait, R. O., Mohamed, A. M., Shaaban, T. S., Al—khresheh, M. H., & Al—Qadri, A. H. (2025). The role of ChatGPT in enhancing EFL students’ ESP writing skills: An experimental study. Discover Education, 4, 240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217—025—00700—6

[20] Kara, S., & Kucuk, T. (2023). The effects of picture dictionaries in promoting vocabulary development of EFL learners at tertiary level. Novitas—ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 17(2), 80-94. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10015826

[21] Kasneci, E., Seßler, K., Küchemann, S., Bannert, M., Dementieva, D., Fischer, F., ... & Kasneci, G. (2023). ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large language models for education. Learning and Individual Differences, 103, 102274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102274

[22] Kohnke, L., Moorhouse, B. L., & Zou, D. (2023). Exploring generative artificial intelligence preparedness among university language instructors: A case study. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5, 100156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100156

[23] Kucuk, T. (2023). Technology integrated teaching and its positive and negative impacts on education. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, 10(1), 46-55. https://doi.org/10.23918/ijsses.v10i1p46

[24] Kucuk, T . (2024). ChatGPT integrated grammar teaching and learning in EFL classes: A study on Tishk International University students in Erbil, Iraq. Arab World English Journal, 1(1), 100-111. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/chatgpt.6

[25] Kucuk, T. (2025). Perceptions of students and teachers about hindrances of ChatGPT in foreign language education. Arab World English Journal, 1(1), 220-233. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/AI.12

[26] Kucuk, T., & Daskan, A. (2024). Mobile assisted language learning (MALL) in vocabulary: A study on Tishk Language Preparatory School students. Arab World English Journal, 15(4), 255-266. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol15no4.16

[27] Kucuk, T., Celik, B., & Bingol, M. (2025). Exploring English as a foreign language teachers’ perceptions of ChatGPT integration in language teaching. International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies, 13(1), 64-84. https://doi.org/10.23918/ijsses.v13i1p4

[28] Lee, H., Phatale, S., Mansoor, H., Lu, K. R., Mesnard, T., Ferret, J., ... & Rastogi, A. (2023). RLAIF: Scaling reinforcement learning from human feedback with AI feedback. In ICLR 2024 Conference. https://openreview.net/forum?id=AAxIs3D2ZZ

[29] Li, J., Huang, J., Wu, W., & Whipple, P. B. (2024). Evaluating the role of ChatGPT in enhancing EFL writing assessments in classroom settings: A preliminary investigation. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11, Article 1268. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599—024—03755—2

[30] Mahapatra, S. (2024). Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: A mixed methods intervention study. Smart Learning Environments, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561—024—00295—9

[31] Mekheimer, M . (2025). Generative AI—assisted feedback and EFL writing: A study on proficiency, revision frequency and writing quality. Discover Education, 4(1), 170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217—025—00602—7

[32] Munaye, Y. Y., Admass, W., Belayneh, Y., Molla, A., & Asmare, M. (2025). ChatGPT in education: A systematic review on opportunities, challenges, and future directions. Algorithms, 18(6), 352. https://doi.org/10.3390/a18060352

[33] Nguyen, T. (2024). ChatGPT in medical education: A precursor for automation bias? JMIR Medical Education, 10, e50174. https://doi.org/10.2196/50174

[34] Nithideechaiwarachok, B., & Chano, J. (2024). Socio—cultural and social constructivist theories and its application in EFL classroom for Thai pre—service teachers: A review for further research. International Journal of Language Education, 8(3), 564-572. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v8i3.66499

[35] Polakova, P., & Ivenz, P. (2024). The impact of ChatGPT feedback on the development of EFL students’ writing skills. Cogent Education, 11. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2410101

[36] Salloum, S. A. (2024). AI perils in education: Exploring ethical concerns. In A. Al—Marzouqi, S. A. Salloum, M. Al—Saidat, A. Aburayya, & B. Gupta (Eds.), Artificial intelligence in education: The power and dangers of ChatGPT in the classroom (Studies in Big Data, Vol. 144). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978—3—031—52280—2_43

[37] Shabbir, A., Rizvi, S., Alam, M. M., & Su’ud, M. M. (2024). Beyond boundaries: Navigating the positive potential of ChatGPT, empowering education in underdeveloped corners of the world. Heliyon, 10(16), e35845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35845

[38] Teng, M. F. (2024). “ChatGPT is the companion, not enemies”: EFL learners’ perceptions and experiences in using ChatGPT for feedback in writing. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 7, 100270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100270

[39] Tran, T. T. T. (2025). Enhancing EFL writing revision practices: The impact of AI— and teacher—generated feedback and their sequences. Education Sciences, 15(2), Article 232. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15020232

[40] Triantafyllou, S. A., & Sapounidis, T. (2026). Mapping a decade of research on gamification and computational thinking: A bibliometric and thematic analysis (2015—2025). Interchange, 57(2), 159-206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10780—026—09562—9

[41] Tu, S. P., & Ego—ugan, G. B. (2024). Teacher feedback shaping emotions and motivation in EFL writing. In B. Lacy, P. Lege, & P. Ferguson (Eds.), Growth mindset in language education. JALT. https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2023—32

[42] Weng, F., Zhao, C. G., & Chen, S. (2024). Effects of peer feedback in English writing classes on EFL students’ writing feedback literacy. Assessing Writing, 61, 100874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2024.100874

[43] Werdiningsih, I., Marzuki, & Rusdin, D. (2024). Balancing AI and authenticity: EFL students’ experiences with ChatGPT in academic writing. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 11(1), 2392388. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2024.2392388

[44] Yan, L., Sha, L., Zhao, L., Li, Y., Martinez—Maldonado, R., Chen, G., ... & Gašević, D. (2024). Practical and ethical challenges of large language models in education: A systematic scoping review. British Journal of Educational Technology, 55(1), 90-112. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13370

[45] Yang, L. F., Zhang, L. J., & Dixon, H. R. (2023). Understanding the impact of teacher feedback on EFL students’ use of self—regulated writing strategies. Journal of Second Language Writing, 60, 101015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2023.101015

[46] Yang, Y., Hussin, S., & Hashim, H. (2025). Feedback literacy and EFL learner engagement with ChatGPT feedback: Predicting feedback uptake and perceived usefulness. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 15(11), 3760-3771. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1511.30

[47] Zeevy—Solovey, O. (2024). Comparing peer, ChatGPT, and teacher corrective feedback in EFL writing: Students’ perceptions and preferences. Technology in Language Teaching & Learning, 6(3), 1482. https://doi.org/10.29140/tltl.v6n3.1482

[48] Zhang, X., & Zhang, R. (2023). Feedback, response, and learner development: A sociocultural approach to corrective feedback in second language writing. SAGE Open, 13(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231157680

[49] Zhao, X. (2023). Leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) technology for English writing: Introducing Wordtune as a digital writing assistant for EFL writers. RELC Journal, 54(3), 890-894. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882221094089

[50] Zou, S., Guo, K., Wang, J., & Liu, Y. (2026). Investigating students’ uptake of teacher— and ChatGPT—generated feedback in EFL writing: A comparison study. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 39(4), 1062-1091. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2024.2447279