Drug-related juvenile crimes in refugee camps are a growing concern, shaped by structural vulnerabilities. This review synthesizes existing literature on drug-related juvenile crimes in refugee settings, focusing on how social disorganization, structural neglect, and psychosocial deprivation increase vulnerability among displaced children, and argues for a public health-oriented decriminalization approach to prevention and rehabilitation. Drawing upon international and regional studies published between 2017 and 2024, the paper highlights how poverty, forced migration, trauma, limited education, and exposure to drug trafficking networks contribute to youth delinquency in refugee camps. Using social disorganization, delinquent subculture, rational choice, and structural functionalism theories, the review identifies five key thematic drivers: economic marginalization, peer and gang influence, normalization of drug culture, lack of family supervision, and absence of rehabilitation services. In light of contemporary debates on drug decriminalization, the review argues that punitive approaches to drug-related juvenile offences often reinforce structural disadvantages, criminalize poverty, and hinder social reintegration. Instead, a public health-oriented decriminalization framework can mitigate these harms by shifting focus from punishment to rehabilitation, prevention, and community reintegration. The consequences of maintaining criminalization extend beyond individual harm, contributing to broader community insecurity, increased drug dependency, and undermined law and order. The paper concludes by recommending a multisectoral prevention and recovery framework that aligns with decriminalization principles, emphasizing community-based rehabilitation, psychosocial counseling, drug awareness education, and integrated child protection systems anchored in social work and public health models. Such an approach advances restorative justice and promotes long-term well-being for at-risk juveniles in fragile and displaced settings.
Funding
This work was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS/1/2024/SS09/USM/02/1).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
| [1] |
Abdul Rahman M.R., Abd Hamid A.I., Noh N.A., Omar H., Chai W.J., Idris Z., et al. (2022). Alteration in the functional organization of the default mode network following closed non-severe traumatic brain injury. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 16:833320. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2022.833320
|
| [2] |
Ali I., Shaik R., Maruthi A.Y., Azman A., Singh P., Bala J.D., et al. (2022). Impacts of climate change on coastal communities. In:Research Anthology on Environmental and Societal Impacts of Climate Change. Pennsylvania, PA: IGI Global Scientific Publishing, p. 1659-1671.
|
| [3] |
Alkire S., Kanagaratnam U., & Suppa N. (2023). The Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) 2023 Country Results and Methodological Note. OPHIMPI Methodological Note 55, Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative. University of Oxford.
|
| [4] |
American Bar Association. (2023). Perpetrators or Victims? The U.S. Response to the Forced Criminality of Children. USA: American Bar Association.
|
| [5] |
Azman A., Jamir S.P.S., & Sulaiman J. (2019). The mentally ill and their impact on family caregivers: A qualitative case study. International Social Work, 62(1):461-471. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872817731146
|
| [6] |
Azman A., Singh P.S.J., Parker J., & Ashencaen C.S. (2020). Addressing competency requirements of social work students during the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia. Social Work Education, 39(8):1058-1065. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325020973308
|
| [7] |
BBC News. (2023). Rohingya: Gang Violence Stalks World’s Largest Refugee Camp. BBC News. Available from: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-66569013 [Last accessed on 2025 Jan 12].
|
| [8] |
Braun V., & Clarke V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2):77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
|
| [9] |
Browning S.L. (2015). Crime and criminal justice from a functionalist perspective. In: Miller J.M., & Gaines L.M. (Criminal Justice in Action:eds.). The Core. United States: Cengage Learning, 1-528.
|
| [10] |
Cohen A.K. (1955). Delinquent Boys. United States: The Free Press, p. 208-213.
|
| [11] |
Creswell J. (2014). Research Design:Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc.
|
| [12] |
Cypress B.S. (2017). Rigor or reliability and validity in qualitative research: Perspectives, strategies, reconceptualization, and recommendations. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing, 36(4):253-263. https://doi.org/10.1097/DCC.0000000000000253
|
| [13] |
Doğan F.İ. (2024). Socioeconomic, migration, and political upheaval factors in crime: Applying the social disorganization theory in Turkey. Sociology Compass, 18(11):e70012. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.70012
|
| [14] |
Gul S. (2009). An evaluation of rational choice theory in criminology. Girne American University Journal of Sociology and Applied Science, 4(8):36-44.
|
| [15] |
Hopkins J.A., Weinberg L.A., & Clement M. (1994). Southeast Asian refugee youth: Implications for juvenile justice. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 45(2):15-27. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6988.1994.tb00803.x
|
| [16] |
Hossain M.I., Ali I., Azman A., Ahmad I., & Mehedi N. (2021). The Rohingya refugee crisis: A threat to peace and security in South Asia. The International Journal of Community and Social Development, 3(4):353-371. https://doi.org/10.1177/25166026211028365
|
| [17] |
Human Rights Watch. (2023). Bangladesh:Spiraling Violence against Rohingya Refugees-Protect Community from Killings, Abductions, Torture. United States: HRW. Available from: https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/07/13/bangladesh-spiraling-violence-against-rohingya-refugees [Last accessed on 2024 Sep 29].
|
| [18] |
Hung H.Y., Azman A., & Singh P.S.J. (2023). The impact of counseling on the dignity of older people: Protocol for a mixed methods study. JMIR Research Protocols, 12(1):e45557. https://doi.org/10.2196/45557
|
| [19] |
International Organization for Migration. (2016). IOM Appeal (Myanmar/Rakhine State: April 2016 - April 2018). IOM. Available from: https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/country_appeal/file/IOM-Myanmar-Appeal-April-2016-April-2018.pdf [Last accessed on 2024 Sep 20].
|
| [20] |
Islam A. (2021). Beyond the root: Understanding lives of refugees and migrants in Estonia. International Journal of Humanities and Social Development Research, 5(2):54-71. https://doi.org/10.30546/2523-4331.2021.5.2.54
|
| [21] |
Islam I., & Naing Z. (2023). Five years lost: Youth inclusion in the Rohingya response. Journal on Migration and Human Security, 11(1):99-108. https://doi.org/10.1177/23315024231160765
|
| [22] |
Ivert A.K., & Magnusson M.M. (2020). Drug use and criminality among unaccompanied refugee minors: A review of the literature. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 16(1):93-107. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMHSC-05-2019-0050
|
| [23] |
Kerrigan M.R. (2014). A framework for understanding community colleges’ organizational capacity for data use: A convergent parallel mixed methods study. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 8(4):341-362. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689814523518
|
| [24] |
Khuda K. E. (2019). Juvenile delinquency, Its causes and justice system in Bangladesh: A Critical Analysis. Journal of South Asian Studies, 7(3):111-120. https://doi.org/10.33687/jsas.007.03.3097
|
| [25] |
Lane J. (2018). Addressing juvenile crime: What have we learned, and how should we proceed? Criminology and Public Policy, 17(2):283-307. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12362
|
| [26] |
London School of Economics and Political Science. (2021). Rethinking a Sustainable Solution to the Rohingya Crisis: Limitations of the World Bank’s Proposal. LSE. Available from: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/lseupr/2021/11/26/rethinking-a-sustainable-solution-to-the-rohingya-crisis-limitations-of-the-world-banks-proposal [Last accessed on 2024 Sep 13].
|
| [27] |
Mallick A.H. (2020). Rohingya refugee repatriation from Bangladesh: A far cry from reality. Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs, 7(2):202-226. https://doi.org/10.1177/2347797020938983
|
| [28] |
Mcfarlane I., Black K., Madonia K., Jensen J., Kollodge, R., Daldin, J., et al. (2023). UNFPA State of World Population: Eight Billion Lives. United States: UNFPA.
|
| [29] |
Moffitt T.E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100(4):674-701. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.674
|
| [30] |
Nielsen A.L., Lee M.T., & Martinez J.R. (2005). Integrating race, place and motive in social disorganization theory: Lessons from a comparison of black and Latino homicide types in two immigrant destination cities. Criminology, 43(3):837-872. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0011-1348.2005.00025.x
|
| [31] |
Norwegian Refugee Council. (2018). Ten Challenges of Refugee Youth. NRC. https://www.infomigrants.net/en/post/11327/ten-challenges-of-refugee-youth-new-report-from-norwegian-refugee-council [Last accessed on 2024 Sep 17].
|
| [32] |
Oke A.E., Aliu J., Jamir Singh P.S., Onajite S.A., Shaharudin Samsurijan M., & Azura Ramli R. (2024). Appraisal of awareness and usage of digital technologies for sustainable wellbeing among construction workers in a developing economy. International Journal of Construction Management, 24(5):521-529. https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2023.2179628
|
| [33] |
Oke A.E., Aliu J., Odia O.A., Aigbavboa C.O., Jamir Singh P.S., Awuzie B.O., et al. (2023). A quantitative assessment of key drivers for environmental economic practices adoption for sustainable development. Sustainable Development, 31(5):3579-3594. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2612
|
| [34] |
Oke A.E., Kineber A.F., Olanrewaju O.I., Omole O., Jamir Singh P.S., Samsurijan M.S., et al. (2022). Exploring the 4IR drivers for sustainable residential building delivery from social work residential perspective- a structural equation modelling approach. Sustainability, 15(1):468. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010468
|
| [35] |
Orr Z., & Ajzenstadt M. (2020). Beyond control: The criminalization of African asylum seekers in Israel. International Review of Sociology, 30(1):142-165. https://doi.org/10.1080/03906701.2020.1724369
|
| [36] |
Parsons T. (1951). The Social System. United States: Free Press.
|
| [37] |
Phillimore J. (2021). Refugee-integration-opportunity structures: Shifting the focus from refugees to context. Journal of Refugee Studies, 34(2):1946-1966. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feaa012
|
| [38] |
Piper T. (1993). Myanmar, Muslims from Rakhine State: Exit and return. Geneva, Switzerland: UNHCR.
|
| [39] |
Rashid M.M., Azman A., Singh P.S.J., & Ali M.I. (2020). Issues and problems of small-scale fishing (SSF) communities inSouth Asia: A comprehensive overview. Indian Journal of Ecology, 47(3):775-781.
|
| [40] |
Rashid M.M., Singh P.S.J., & Azman A. (2023). Promoting fishing profession and general well-being: A call for labor policy. Cogent Social Sciences, 9(1):2194729. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2194729
|
| [41] |
Sarstedt M., Hair J.F., Cheah J.H., Becker J.M., & Ringle C.M. (2019). How to specify, estimate, and validate higher-order constructs in PLS-SEM. Australasian Marketing Journal, 27(3):197-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2019.05.003
|
| [42] |
Shaw C., & McKay H. (1942). Juvenile Delinquency in Urban Areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
|
| [43] |
Singh P.S.J., Oke A.E., Kineber A.F., Olanrewaju O.I., Omole O., Samsurijan M.S., et al. (2023). A mathematical analysis of 4IR innovation barriers in developmental social work— A structural equation modeling approach. Mathematics, 11(4):1003. https://doi.org/10.3390/math11041003
|
| [44] |
Singh P.S.J., Rashid M.M., Azman A., & Ali I. (2019). Fishery policies and acts in present context-experiences from coastal Bangladesh. Indian Journal of Ecology, 46(4):857-861.
|
| [45] |
Sivan A.B., Koch L., Baier C., & Adiga M. (1999). Refugee youth at risk: A quest for rational policy. Children’s Services: Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 2(3):139-158. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326918cs0203_2
|
| [46] |
Together Free. (2020). Together Ending Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking. United Kingdom: Together Free.
|
| [47] |
Turkay S., & Tirthali D. (2010). Youth leadership development in virtual worlds: A case study. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2):3175-3179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.485
|
| [48] |
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2023). Refugee Statistics. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Available from: https://www.unrefugees.org/refugee-facts/statistics [Last accessed on 2024 Sept 25].
|
| [49] |
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2020). World Drug Report 2020. United Nations. Available from: https://wdr.unodc.org/wdr2020/en/index2020.html
|
| [50] |
United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. United States: UN.
|
| [51] |
Yusof M.M., Azman A., Singh P.S.J., & Yahaya M. (2022). A qualitative analysis of the coping strategies of female victimisation after separation. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 7(1):84-90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-021-00199-5
|
PDF
(452KB)
