Elevated temperature tensile properties of wire arc additively manufactured 308L austenitic stainless steel

Abstract

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) presents a promising approach for fabricating medium-to-large austenitic stainless steel components, which are essential in industries like aerospace, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers. This research examines the microstructural characteristics and tensile behaviour of SS308L manufactured via the gas metal arc welding-based WAAM (WAAM 308L) process. Tensile tests were conducted at room temperature (RT, 25°C), 300°C, and 600°C in as-built conditions. The microstructure consists primarily of austenite grains with retained δ-ferrite phases distributed within the austenitic matrix. The ferrite fraction, in terms of ferrite number (FN), ranged between 2.30 and 4.80 along the build direction from top to bottom. The ferrite fraction in the middle region is 3.60 FN. Tensile strength was higher in the horizontal oriented samples (WAAM 308L-H), while ductility was higher in the vertical ones. Tensile results show a gradual reduction in strength with increasing test temperature, in which significant dynamic strain aging (DSA) is observed at 600°C. The variation in serration behavior between the vertical and horizontal specimens may be attributed to microstructural differences arising from the build orientation. The yield strength (YS), ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and elongation (EL) of WAAM 308L at 600°C were (240 ± 10) MPa, (442 ± 16) MPa, and (54 ± 2.00)%, respectively, in the horizontal orientation (WAAM 308L-H), and (248 ± 9) MPa, (412 ±19) MPa, and (75 ± 2.80)%, respectively, in the vertical orientation (WAAM 308L-V). Fracture surfaces revealed a transition from ductile dimple fracture at RT and 300°C to a mixed ductile–brittle failure with intergranular facets at 600°C. The research explores the applicability and constraints of WAAM-produced 308L stainless steel in high-temperature conditions, offering crucial insights for its use in thermally resistant structural and industrial components.

Keywords

wire arc additive manufacturing / austenitic stainless steels / microstructure / mechanical properties / elevated temperatures

References

[1] SandeepOS, KuriachenB. Influence of build direction and heat treatment on the microstructure and tensile characteristics of cold metal transfer based wire arc additive manufactured SS 304L. CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol., 2023, 4759.

[2] AcarSS, YalçinkayaT. Modeling of the stress path-dependent strain ratcheting behaviour of 304L stainless steel through crystal plasticity frameworks. Met. Mater. Int., 2025, 3192525.

[3] A.R. Kannan, C.D. Prasad, V. Rajkumar, et al., Hot oxidation and corrosion behaviour of boiler steel fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing, Mater. Charact., 203(2023), art. No. 113113.

[4] BrnicJ, NiuJT, TurkaljG, CanadijaM, LancD. Experimental determination of mechanical properties and short-time creep of AISI 304 stainless steel at elevated temperatures. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 2010, 17139.

[5] KannanAR, PalgunaY, RajkumarV, et al.. Microstructure and nanomechanical behaviour of wire-arc additive manufactured nickel-based superalloy C276. Prog. Addit. Manuf., 2025, 1084819.

[6] U.M. Chaudry, Y. Noh, J.R. Lee, et al., Comparative study of room and cryogenic deformation behavior of additive manufactured Ti–6Al–4V alloy, Adv. Eng. Mater., 26(2024), No. 20, art. No. 2301808.

[7] J.R. Lee, M.S. Lee, H. Chae, et al., Effects of building direction and heat treatment on the local mechanical properties of direct metal laser sintered 15–5 PH stainless steel, Mater. Charact., 167(2020), art. No. 110468.

[8] Y.Z. Wu, J.G. Fang, C. Wu, C.Y. Li, G.Y. Sun, and Q. Li, Additively manufactured materials and structures: A state-of-the-art review on their mechanical characteristics and energy absorption, Int. J. Mech. Sci., 246(2023), art. No. 108102.

[9] J. Li, K. Jiang, M.T. Chen, O. Zhao, and L. Gardner, Post-fire behaviour of wire arc additively manufactured ER70S-6 steel, Eng. Struct., 334(2025), art. No. 120192.

[10] L. Chen, M. Zhao, J.H. Wu, et al., Mechanical property strengthening by post-heat treatments in NiTiCu shape memory alloys fabricated by twin-wire arc additive manufacturing, Virtual Phys. Prototyp., 20(2025), No. 1, art. No. e2457579.

[11] RodriguesTA, FariasFWC, AvilaJA, et al.. Effect of heat treatments on Inconel 625 fabricated by wire and arc additive manufacturing: An in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction analysis. Sci. Technol. Weld. Joining, 2023, 287534.

[12] W.K. Zuo, M.T. Chen, S.W. Liu, et al., Experimental investigation on double-lap shear behavior of 3D printed austenitic stainless steel bolted connections, Eng. Struct., 317(2024), art. No. 118501.

[13] KokareS, ShenJJ, FonsecaPP, et al.. Wire arc additive manufacturing of a high-strength low-alloy steel part: Environmental impacts, costs, and mechanical properties. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2024, 1341–2453.

[14] GokaS, ManjaiahM, DavidsonMJ. Study on mechanical, microstructural and corrosion analysis of wire arc additive manufactured AZ31 magnesium alloy. Met. Mater. Int., 2025, 3172104.

[15] U. Gürol, Y. Altınay, A. Günen, Ö.S. Bölükbaşı, M. Koçak, and G. Çam, Effect of powder-pack aluminizing on microstructure and oxidation resistance of wire arc additively manufactured stainless steels, Surf. Coat. Technol., 468(2023), art. No. 129742.

[16] Rajkumar V, N.S. Shanmugam, N.P. Kumar, K.K. Kumar, and A.R. Kannan, Microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion behaviour of wire arc additive manufactured martensitic stainless steel 410 for pressure vessel applications, Int. J. Press. Vessels Pip., 209(2024), art. No. 105171.

[17] M. Vishnukumar, R. Pramod, and A.R. Kannan, Wire arc additive manufacturing for repairing aluminium structures in marine applications, Mater. Lett., 299(2021), art. No. 130112.

[18] W.K. Zuo, M.T. Chen, O. Zhao, and L. Gardner, Testing of wire arc additively manufactured duplex stainless steel double-lap shear bolted connections, J. Struct. Eng., 151(2025), No. 2, art. No. 04024205.

[19] Y.Y. Chen, M.T. Chen, O. Zhao, B. Rossi, and X.F. Ruan, Fatigue crack growth behavior of wire arc additively manufactured 316L austenitic stainless steel, Thin Walled Struct., 212(2025), art. No. 113182.

[20] V.T. Le and D.S. Mai, Microstructural and mechanical characteristics of 308L stainless steel manufactured by gas metal arc welding-based additive manufacturing, Mater. Lett., 271(2020), art. No. 127791.

[21] O.S. Sandeep, B. Kuriachen, R.P. Meethal, and G.S. Anantharam, Influence of build direction on the corrosion behavior of Wire arc additively manufactured SS 304L, Mater. Lett., 383(2025), art. No. 137968.

[22] Y.J. Li, Y.T. Yuan, D.X. Wang, et al., Low cycle fatigue behavior of wire arc additive manufactured and solution annealed 308L stainless steel, Addit. Manuf., 52(2022), art. No. 102688.

[23] Y. Koli, S. Aravindan, and P.V. Rao, Wear characteristics of wire-arc additive manufactured SS308L, J. Tribol., 145(2023), No. 3, art. No. 031706.

[24] M.T. Chen, Z.C. Gong, T.Y. Zhang, et al., Mechanical behavior of austenitic stainless steels produced by wire arc additive manufacturing, Thin Walled Struct., 196(2024), art. No. 111455.

[25] Z.C. Gong, H.T. Li, W. Chen, O. Zhao, and M.T. Chen, Material properties of wire arc additively manufactured austenitic stainless steels after exposure to elevated temperatures, Thin Walled Struct., 211(2025), art. No. 113061.

[26] A. Babu, E. Trodini, J.L.G. Argumedo, I.M. Richardson, and M.J.M. Hermans, Correlating geometry, microstructure and properties of high strength steel thin wall structures fabricated with WAAM, J. Adv. Join. Process., 11(2025), art. No. 100292.

[27] DavisJRMetals Handbook Desk Edition, 19982nd ed..

[28] DavisJRASM Specialty Handbook: Stainless Steels, 1994

[29] RobertsD, ZhangY, CharitI, ZhangJ. A comparative study of microstructure and high-temperature mechanical properties of 15–5 PH stainless steel processed via additive manufacturing and traditional manufacturing. Prog. Addit. Manuf., 2018, 33183.

[30] Y.J. Li, Y. Luo, J.H. Li, D.R. Song, B. Xu, and X. Chen, Ferrite formation and its effect on deformation mechanism of wire arc additive manufactured 308 L stainless steel, J. Nucl. Mater., 550(2021), art. No. 152933.

[31] KeY, XiongJ. Microstructure and mechanical properties of double-wire feed GTA additive manufactured 308L stainless steel. Rapid Prototyp. J., 2020, 2691503.

[32] LeVT, MaiDS, DoanTK, ParisH. Wire and arc additive manufacturing of 308L stainless steel components: Optimization of processing parameters and material properties. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J., 2021, 2441015

[33] M. Li, T. Lu, J.W. Dai, X.J. Jia, X.H. Gu, and T. Dai, Microstructure and mechanical properties of 308L stainless steel fabricated by laminar plasma additive manufacturing, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 770(2020), art. No. 138523.

[34] ZouL, HuangY, TanY, et al.. Anisotropy study of the microstructure, phase composition and properties of 321 stainless steel additively manufactured by laser powder bed fusion. J. Manuf. Process., 2025, 1411135.

[35] ChenXH, LiJ, ChengX, WangHM, HuangZ. Effect of heat treatment on microstructure, mechanical and corrosion properties of austenitic stainless steel 316L using arc additive manufacturing. Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2018, 715307.

[36] L. Gargalis, L. Karavias, J.S. Graff, S. Diplas, E.P. Koumoulos, and E.K. Karaxi, Novel Powder feedstock towards microstructure engineering in laser powder bed fusion: A case study on duplex/super duplex and austenitic stainless-steel alloys, Metals, 13(2023), No. 9, art. No. 1546.

[37] KumarSS, MuruganN, RamachandranKK. Microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel joints. J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2018, 25479.

[38] RodriguesTA, FariasFWC, ZhangKP, et al.. Wire and arc additive manufacturing of 316L stainless steel/Inconel 625 functionally graded material: Development and characterization. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2022, 21237.

[39] H.P. Liao, Z.M. Wang, P. Chi, B. Zhang, T. Ding, and Q. Zhang, Evolutions of microstructure and mechanical property of 308L stainless steel repaired by the local dry underwater wire arc additive manufacturing, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 898(2024), art. No. 146365.

[40] KannanAR, ShanmugamNS, VendanSA. Effect of cold metal transfer process parameters on microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of AISI 316L tailor welded blanks. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2019, 1039–124265.

[41] WangXL, HuQX, LiuWK, ChenFG, XiaoN, ZhanSW. Microstructure and corrosion properties of stainless steel 308L prepared by cold metal transfer–wire arc additive manufacturing. J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 2024, 332010736.

[42] RongYM, HuangY, ZhangGJ, MiGY, ShaoWJ. Laser beam welding of 316L T-joint: Microstructure, microhardness, distortion, and residual stress. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2017, 905–82263.

[43] PramodR, KumarSM, KannanAR, ShanmugamNS, TangestaniR. Fabrication of gas metal arc welding based wire plus arc additive manufactured 347 stainless steel structure: Behavioral analysis through experimentation and finite element method. Met. Mater. Int., 2022, 281307.

[44] ASTM International, ASTM A240/A240M-25Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium–Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications, 2025, West Conshohocken. ASTM International.

[45] K. Mohta, S.K. Gupta, S. Cathirvolu, S. Jaganathan, and J. Chattopadhyay, High temperature deformation behavior of Indian PHWR Calandria material SS 304L, Nucl. Eng. Des., 368(2020), art. No. 110801.

[46] S. Dryepondt, P. Nandwana, P.F. Zelaia, and F. List, Microstructure and high temperature tensile properties of 316L fabricated by laser powder-bed fusion, Addit. Manuf., 37(2021), art. No. 101723.

[47] ChenJ, YoungB. Stress–strain curves for stainless steel at elevated temperatures. Eng. Struct., 2006, 282229.

[48] DesuRK, KrishnamurthyHN, BaluA, GuptaAK, SinghSK. Mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steel 304L and 316L at elevated temperatures. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2016, 5113.

[49] AntounBR, AllemanC, TrinidadKDLArzoumanidisA, SilbersteinM, AmirkhiziA. Experimental investigation of dynamic strain aging in 304L stainless steel. Challenges in Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials, 2019, Cham. Springer. 65Volume 2

[50] R. Alagesan, A.R. Kannan, N.S. Shanmugam, and K. Sankaranarayanasamy, Microstructural features and hot tensile behaviour of tungsten inert gas welded TP321 nuclear tubes at elevated temperatures, Eng. Fail. Anal., 154(2023), art. No. 107720.

[51] LiuD, YangDP, HouY, LiYJ, WangGD, YiHL. Strain rate effects on mechanical properties, microstructural evolution, and deformation mechanisms of high manganese steels. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2025, 237219.

[52] KannanAR, ShanmugamNS, SanjeeviprakashK, et al.. Room and high-temperature tensile properties of austenitic stainless steel 321 fabricated by wire arc additive manufacturing. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2025, 363996.

[53] CalmungerM, ChaiGC, ErikssonR, JohanssonS, MoverareJJ. Characterization of austenitic stainless steels deformed at elevated temperature. Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 2017, 48104525.

[54] NikulinI, KaibyshevR. Deformation behavior and the Portevin-Le Chatelier effect in a modified 18Cr–8Ni stainless steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2011, 52831340.

[55] G.A. Muhamed, S. Gündüz, M.A. Erden, and D. Taştemur, Dynamic strain aging behaviour in AISI 316L austenitic stainless steel under as-received and as-welded conditions, Metals, 7(2017), No. 9, art. No. 362.

[56] KaçarR, EmreHE, NohutçuS. Mechanical properties of plasma arc welded AISI304LN austenitic stainless steel at various temperatures. Can. Metall. Q., 2023, 623457.

[57] W.J. Cheng, D.D. Cui, Y.N. Sun, W. Liu, Y.F. Xu, and B. Liu, Cryogenic work-hardening behavior for a metastable austenitic stainless steel at liquid nitrogen temperature, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 861(2022), art. No. 144352.

[58] TariqHMR, ChaudryUM, IshtiaqM, KimM, AliM, JunTS. Effect of Al addition on the room and cryogenic temperature deformation of Mg–xAl–1Zn–1Ca alloy (x = 2, 3 wt.%). J. Magnes. Alloys, 2024, 12114694.

[59] KumarMV, BalasubramanianV, RaoAG. Hot tensile properties and strain hardening behaviour of super 304HCu stainless steel. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2017, 62116.

[60] Q.H. Li, X.Q. Zhu, L.S. Yang, et al., Investigation on the moderately high-temperature tensile behavior of the laser powder bed fusion-fabricated 17–4 PH steel, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 915(2024), art. No. 147221.

[61] D.M. Xu, G.Q. Li, X.L. Wan, R.D.K. Misra, J.X. Yu, and G. Xu, On the deformation mechanism of austenitic stainless steel at elevated temperatures: A critical analysis of fine-grained versus coarse-grained structure, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 773(2020), art. No. 138722.

[62] HussainiSM, SinghSK, GuptaAK. Formability and fracture studies of austenitic stainless steel 316 at different temperatures. J. King Saud Univ. Eng. Sci., 2014, 262184.

[63] ZhangK, XiongJ, KeY. Effect of latter feeding wire on double-wire GTA-AM stainless steel. Mater. Manuf. Process., 2021, 365608.

[64] AbioyeTE, TellezAM, FarayibiPK, OkePK. Laser metal deposition of multi-track walls of 308LSi stainless steel. Mater. Manuf. Process., 2017, 32141660.

[65] B.P. Nagasai, S. Malarvizhi, and V. Balasubramanian, Mechanical properties and microstructural characteristics of wire arc additive manufactured 308 L stainless steel cylindrical components made by gas metal arc and cold metal transfer arc welding processes, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 307(2022), art. No. 117655.

[66] Y. Ayan and N. Kahraman, Investigation of tensile and fatigue properties of an austenitic stainless steel part fabricated by WAAM, Mater. Chem. Phys., 315(2024), art. No. 128937.

[67] M. Bhattacharyya, A. Kundu, K.S. Raja, J. Darsell, S. Jana, and I. Charit, Processing–microstructure–property correlations for temperature-controlled friction stir welding of 304L SS plates, Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 804(2021), art. No. 140635.

[68] W.K. Zuo, M.T. Chen, Y.Y. Chen, O. Zhao, B. Cheng, and J.C. Zhao, Additive manufacturing oriented parametric topology optimization design and numerical analysis of steel joints in grid-shell structures, Thin Walled Struct., 188(2023), art. No. 110817.

[69] Y.N. Huang, L. Yang, and Q.C. Xin, Novel geometrical model and design mechanical parameters for CMT-WAAM stainless steel, J. Constr. Steel Res., 210(2023), art. No. 108071.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

University of Science and Technology Beijing