Overview of in-situ oxygen production technologies for lunar resources

Abstract

The rich resources and unique environment of the Moon make it an ideal location for human expansion and the utilization of extraterrestrial resources. Oxygen, crucial for supporting human life on the Moon, can be extracted from lunar regolith, which is highly rich in oxygen and contains polymetallic oxides. This oxygen and metal extraction can be achieved using existing metallurgical techniques. Furthermore, the ample reserves of water ice on the Moon offer another means for oxygen production. This paper offers a detailed overview of the leading technologies for achieving oxygen production on the Moon, drawing from an analysis of lunar resources and environmental conditions. It delves into the principles, processes, advantages, and drawbacks of water-ice electrolysis, two-step oxygen production from lunar regolith, and one-step oxygen production from lunar regolith. The two-step methods involve hydrogen reduction, carbothermal reduction, and hydrometallurgy, while the one-step methods encompass fluorination/chlorination, high-temperature decomposition, molten salt electrolysis, and molten regolith electrolysis (MOE). Following a thorough comparison of raw materials, equipment, technology, and economic viability, MOE is identified as the most promising approach for future in-situ oxygen production on the Moon. Considering the corrosion characteristics of molten lunar regolith at high temperatures, along with the Moon’s low-gravity environment, the development of inexpensive and stable inert anodes and electrolysis devices that can easily collect oxygen is critical for promoting MOE technology on the Moon. This review significantly contributes to our understanding of in-situ oxygen production technologies on the Moon and supports upcoming lunar exploration initiatives.

Keywords

lunar resources / in-situ oxygen production / space metallurgy / molten lunar regolith electrolysis

References

[1] Chon-Torres OA, Murga-Moreno CA. Conceptual discussion around the notion of the human being as an inter and multiplanetary species. Int. J. Astrobiol.. 2021, 20(5): 327

[2] Delano JW. Scientific exploration of the Moon. Elements. 2009, 5(1): 11

[3] C.L. Li, H. Hu, M.F. Yang, et al., Characteristics of the lunar samples returned by the Chang’e-5 mission, Natl. Sci. Rev., 9(2021), No. 2, art. No. nwab188.

[4] Giguere TA, Taylor GJ, Hawke BR, Lucey PG. The titanium contents of lunar mare basalts. Meteorit. Planet. Sci.. 2000, 35(1): 193

[5] Xu L, Zou YL, Liu JZ. Helium-3 in lunar regolith. Acta Mineral. Sinica. 2003, 23(4): 374

[6] Ouyang ZY. Introduction to Lunar Science. 2005, Beijing, China Astronautic Publishing House: 307

[7] Taylor LA, Carrier WDIII. Production of oxygen on the moon: Which processes are best and why. AIAA J.. 1992, 30(12): 2858

[8] A. Meurisse and J. Carpenter, Past, present and future rationale for space resource utilisation, Planet. Space Sci., 182(2020), art. No. 104853.

[9] Baldry M, Gurieff N, Keogh D. Imagining sustainable human ecosystems with power-to-x in situ resource utilisation technology. Acta Astronaut.. 2022, 192: 190

[10] M.Q. Yu, E. Budiyanto, and H. Tüysüz, Principles of water electrolysis and recent progress in cobalt-, nickel-, and iron- based oxides for the oxygen evolution reaction, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 134(2022), No. 1, art. No. e202103824.

[11] Utreja LR. Lunar environment. Appl. Mech. Rev.. 1993, 46(6): 278

[12] Anand M, Crawford IA, Balat-Pichelin M, et al. . A brief review of chemical and mineralogical resources on the Moon and likely initial in situ resource utilization (ISRU) applications. Planet. Space Sci.. 2012, 74(1): 42

[13] Li C, Ma WH, Li Y, Wei KX. Metallurgical performance evaluation of space-weathered Chang’e-5 lunar soil. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater.. 2024, 31(6): 1241

[14] Watson K, Murray BC, Brown H. The behavior of volatiles on the lunar surface. J. Geophys. Res.. 1961, 66(9): 3033

[15] Neumann GA, Cavanaugh JF, Sun XL, et al. . Bright and dark polar deposits on mercury: Evidence for surface volatiles. Science. 2013, 339(6117): 296

[16] Deutsch AN, Neumann GA, Head JW. New evidence for surface water ice in small-scale cold traps and in three large craters at the north polar region of Mercury from the Mercury Laser Altimeter. Geophys. Res. Lett.. 2017, 44(18): 9233

[17] T. Platz, A. Nathues, N. Schorghofer, et al., Surface water-ice deposits in the northern shadowed regions of Ceres, Nat. Astron., 1(2017), art. No. 0007.

[18] Basilevsky AT, Abdrakhimov AM, Dorofeeva VA. Water and other volatiles on the moon: A review. Sol. Syst. Res.. 2012, 46(2): 89

[19] Crawford IA. Lunar resources: A review. Prog. Phys. Geogr.. 2015, 39(2): 137

[20] Fisher EA, Lucey PG, Lemelin M, et al. . Evidence for surface water ice in the lunar polar regions using reflectance measurements from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter and temperature measurements from the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment. Icarus. 2017, 292: 74

[21] Li S, Lucey PG, Milliken RE, et al. . Direct evidence of surface exposed water ice in the lunar polar regions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.. 2018, 115(36): 8907

[22] Yang W, Pan ZL. Lunar “local specialties”: From Apollo 11 to Chang’e 5. Bull. Mineral., Petrol. Geochem.. 2023, 42(6): 1424

[23] E. Hill, M.J. Mellin, B. Deane, Y. Liu, and L.A. Taylor, Apollo sample 70051 and high- and low-Ti lunar soil simulants MLS-1A and JSC-1A: Implications for future lunar exploration, J. Geophys. Res.: Planet, 112(2007), No. E2, art. No. E02006.

[24] Shi H, Li P, Yang ZS, et al. . Extracting oxygen from Chang’ e-5 lunar regolith simulants. ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng.. 2022, 10(41): 13661

[25] Zheng YC, Wang SJ, Ouyang ZY, et al. . CAS-1 lunar soil simulant. Adv. Space Res.. 2009, 43(3): 448

[26] Li CY, Xie KY, Liu AM, Shi ZN. The preparation and characterization of NEU-1 lunar soil simulants. JOM. 2019, 71(4): 1471

[27] H. Zhang, X. Zhang, G. Zhang, et al., Size, morphology, and composition of lunar samples returned by Chang’e-5 mission, Sci. China Phys. Mech. Astron., 65(2021), No. 2, art. No. 229511.

[28] Guo Z, Li C, Li Y, et al. . Vapor-deposited digenite in Chang’ e-5 lunar soil. Sci. Bull.. 2023, 68(7): 723

[29] Li C, Guo Z, Li Y, et al. . Impact-driven disproportionation origin of nanophase iron particles in Chang’e-5 lunar soil sample. Nat. Astron.. 2022, 6(10): 1156

[30] Z. Guo, C. Li, Y. Li, et al., Sub-microscopic magnetite and metallic iron particles formed by eutectic reaction in Chang’e-5 lunar soil, Nat. Commun., 13(2022), No. 1, art. No. 7177.

[31] Hu S, He HC, Ji JL, et al. . A dry lunar mantle reservoir for young mare basalts of Chang’e-5. Nature. 2021, 600(7887): 49

[32] Tian HC, Wang H, Chen Y, et al. . Non-KREEP origin for Chang’e-5 basalts in the Procellarum KREEP Terrane. Nature. 2021, 600: 59

[33] Li QL, Zhou Q, Liu Y, et al. . Two-billion-year-old volcanism on the Moon from Chang’e-5 basalts. Nature. 2021, 600(7887): 54

[34] G.H. Just, K. Smith, K.H. Joy, and M.J. Roy, Parametric review of existing regolith excavation techniques for lunar in situ Resource Utilisation (ISRU) and recommendations for future excavation experiments, Planet. Space Sci., 180(2020), art. No. 104746.

[35] Cai JZ, Deng JS, Wang L, et al. . Reagent types and action mechanisms in ilmenite flotation: A review. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater.. 2022, 29(9): 1656

[36] Quinn JW, Captain JG, Weis K, Santiago-Maldonado E, Trigwell S. Evaluation of tribocharged electrostatic bene-ficiation of lunar simulant in lunar gravity. J. Aerosp. Eng.. 2013, 26(1): 37

[37] S.Y. Zhang, R.F. Wimmer-Schweingruber, J. Yu, et al., First measurements of the radiation dose on the lunar surface, Sci. Adv., 6(2020), No. 39, art. No. eaaz1334.

[38] Li YQ, Liu JZ, Ouyang ZY, Zheng YC, Li CL. Lunar magnetism and its evolution. Prog. Geophys.. 2005, 20(4): 1003

[39] Michael Z. NASA’s cosmic dust program: collecting dust since 1981. Elements. 2016, 12(3): 159

[40] Horányi M, Szalay JR, Kempf S, et al. . A permanent, asymmetric dust cloud around the Moon. Nature. 2015, 522: 324

[41] R.M. Bagdigian, D. Cloud, and J. Bedard, Status of the regenerative ECLSS water recovery and oxygen generation systems, SAE Technical Paper, (2006), art. No. 2006-01-2057.

[42] Bradley TH, Moffitt BA, Mavris DN, Parekh DE. Development and experimental characterization of a fuel cell powered aircraft. J. Power Sources. 2007, 171(2): 793

[43] Lee CH, Yang JT. Modeling of the Ballard-Mark-V proton exchange membrane fuel cell with power converters for applications in autonomous underwater vehicles. J. Power Sources. 2011, 196(8): 3810

[44] Misch B, Firus A, Brunner G. An alternative method of oxidizing aqueous waste in supercritical water: Oxygen supply by means of electrolysis. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 2000, 17(3): 227

[45] N.M. Samsonov, E.A. Kurmazenko, L.I. Gavrilov, et al., Operation results onboard the international space station and development tendency of atmosphere revitalization and monitoring system, SAE Technical Paper, (2004), art. No. 2024-01-2494.

[46] Ye F, Li JL, Wang XD, et al. . Electrocatalytic properties of Ti/Pt–IrO₂ anode for oxygen evolution in PEM water electrolysis. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy. 2010, 35(15): 8049

[47] Bi L, Boulfrad S, Traversa E. Steam electrolysis by solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) with proton-conducting oxides. Chem. Soc. Rev.. 2014, 43(24): 8255

[48] Ethridge E, Kaukler W. Microwave Extraction of Water from Lunar Regolith Simulant. AIP Conference Proceedings. 2007830

[49] Schlüter L, Cowley A, Pennec Y, Roux M. Gas purification for oxygen extraction from lunar regolith. Acta Astronaut.. 2021, 179: 371

[50] Williams RJ, McKay DS, Giles D, Bunch TE. O’Neill GK, Billing-ham J, Gilbreath W, O’Leary B, Gossett B. Mining and beneficiation of lunar ores. Space Resources and Space Settlements. 1979, Washington, National Aeronautics and Space Administration: 275

[51] McKay D, Allen C. Hydrogen reduction of lunar materials for oxygen extraction on the Moon. Proceedings of 34th Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. 1996488

[52] Rice EE, Hermes PA, Musbah OA, Rice E, Hermes P, Musbah O. Carbon-based reduction of lunar oxides for oxygen production. Proceedings of 35th Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit. 1997890

[53] Allen CC, Morris RV, McKay DS. Experimental reduction of lunar mare soil and volcanic glass. J. Geophys. Res.: Planets. 1994, 99(E11): 23173

[54] Gibson MA, Knudsen CW, Brueneman DJ, Allen CC, Kanamori H, McKay DS. Reduction of lunar basalt 70035: Oxygen yield and reaction product analysis. J. Geophys. Res.: Planets. 1994, 99(E5): 10887

[55] Allen CC, Morris RV, McKay DS. Oxygen extraction from lunar soils and pyroclastic glass. J. Geophys. Res.: Planets. 1996, 101(E11): 26085

[56] Yoshida H, Watanabe T, Kanamori H, Yoshida T, Ogiwara S, Eguchi K. Experimental study on water production by hydrogen reduction of lunar soil simulant in a fixed bed reactor. Proceedings of Space Resources Roundtable II. 200075

[57] Lu YH, Mantha D, Reddy RG. Thermodynamic analysis on lunar soil reduced by hydrogen. Metall. Mater. Trans. B. 2010, 41(6): 1321

[58] Tang J, Chu MS, Li F, Feng C, Liu ZG, Zhou YS. Development and progress on hydrogen metallurgy. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater.. 2020, 27(6): 713

[59] Sanders GB, Larson WE. Progress made in lunar in situ resource utilization under NASA’s exploration technology and development program. J. Aerosp. Eng.. 2013, 26(1): 5

[60] Taylor LA, Carrier WD. Lewis JS, Matthews MS, Guerrieri ML. Oxygen production on the moon: An overview and evaluation. Resources of Near-Earth Space. 199369

[61] Taylor LA. Hydrogen, helium, and other solar-wind components in lunar soil: Abundances and predictions. Proceedings of Space 90: the Second International Conference. 199068

[62] Taylor LA. Resource for a lunar base: Rocks, minerals, and soil of the Moon. Proceedings of the Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century. 1992361

[63] Wang L, Guo PM, Kong LB, Zhao P. Industrial application prospects and key issues of the pure-hydrogen reduction process. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater.. 2022, 29(10): 1922

[64] Cutler AH, Krag P. Mendell WW. A carbothermal scheme for lunar oxygen production. Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century. 1985, Houston, Lunar and Planetary Institute: 559

[65] Sen S, Ray CS, Reddy RG. Processing of lunar soil simulant for space exploration applications. Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 2005, 413–414: 592

[66] M. Samouhos, P. Tsakiridis, M. Iskander, M. Taxiarchou, and K. Betsis, In-situ resource utilization: Ferrosilicon and SiC production from BP-1 lunar regolith simulant via carbotherm-al reduction, Planet. Space Sci., 212(2022), art. No. 105414.

[67] Mckay DS, Morris RV, Jurewicz AJ. Experimental reduction of simulated lunar glass by carbon and hydrogen and implications for lunar base oxygen production. Proceedings of the 22nd Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 199149

[68] L. Schlüter and A. Cowley, Review of techniques for in-situ oxygen extraction on the moon, Planet. Space Sci., 181(2020), art. No. 104753.

[69] Rao DB, Choudary UV, Erstfeld TE, Williams RJ, Chang YA. Extraction processes for the production of aluminum, titanium, iron, magnesium, and oxygen and nonter-restrial sources. Proceedings of the Space Resources and Space Settlements. 1979257

[70] Zhao Y, Shadman F. Kinetics and mechanism of ilmenite reduction with carbon monoxide. AlChE. J.. 1990, 36(9): 1433

[71] Lu YH, Reddy RG. Extraction of metals and oxygen from lunar soil. High Temp. Mater. Processes (London). 2008, 27(4): 223

[72] J. Prinetto, A. Colagrossi, A. Dottori, Ivan Troisi, and Michèle Roberta Lavagna, Terrestrial demonstrator for a low-temperature carbothermal reduction process on lunar regolith simulant: Design and AIV activities, Planet. Space Sci., 225(2023), art. No. 105618.

[73] Gustafson R, White B, Fidler M, Muscatello A. Demonstrating the solar carbothermal reduction of lunar regolith to produce oxygen. 48th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition. 20101163

[74] Halmann M, Frei A, Steinfeld A. Vacuum carbothermic reduction of Al₂O₃, BeO, MgO–CaO, TiO₂, ZrO₂, HfO₂+ZrO₂, SiO₂, SiO₂+Fe₂O₃, and GeO₂ to the metals: A thermodynamic study. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall. Rev.. 2011, 32(4): 247

[75] Lee HC, Dhage S, Akhtar MS, et al. . A simulation study on the direct carbothermal reduction of SiO₂ for Si metal. Curr. Appl. Phys.. 2010, 10(2): S218

[76] Friedlander HN. An analysis of alternate hydrogen sources for lunar manufacture. Proceedings of the Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century. 1984611

[77] Balasubramaniam R, Gokoglu S, Hegde U. The reduction of lunar regolith by carbothermal processing using methane. Int. J. Miner. Process.. 2010, 96(1–4): 54

[78] Gustafson RJ, Rice EE, White BC. Carbon reduction of lunar regolith for oxygen production. AIP Conference Proceedings. 20051224

[79] Sullivan TA. A modified sulfate process to lunar oxygen. Proceedings of the Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space - III: Space’ 92; Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference. 1992641

[80] Haynes WM, Lide DR, Bruno TJ. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 2016, Boca Raton, CRC Press

[81] Burt DM. Lunar production of oxygen and metals using fluorine: Conceptsinvolving fluorite, lithium, and acid-base theory. Abstracts of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. 1988150

[82] Burt DM. Lunar mining of oxygen using fluorine. Proceedings of the Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century. 1992423

[83] Landis GA. Materials refining on the Moon. Acta Astronaut.. 2007, 60(10–11): 906

[84] Seboldt W, Lingner S, Hoernes S, Grimmeisen W. Oxygen extraction from lunar soil by fluorination. Abstracts of Resources of Near-Earth Space. 199111

[85] Senior CL. Lunar oxygen production by pyrolysis of regolith. Proceedings of the Tenth Princeton/AIAA/SSI Conference. 1991331

[86] M.G. Shaw, G.A. Brooks, M.A. Rhamdhani, A.R. Duffy, and M.I. Pownceby, Thermodynamic modelling of ultra-high vacuum thermal decomposition for lunar resource processing, Planet. Space Sci., 204(2021), art. No. 105272.

[87] Shaw M, Humbert M, Brooks G, Rhamdhani A, Duffy A, Pownceby M. Mineral processing and metal extraction on the lunar surface – Challenges and opportunities. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall. Rev.. 2022, 43(7): 865

[88] Shi ZN, Liu AM, Guan JZ, Xie KY, Li CY. Metals extraction and oxygen preparation processes for lunar regolith in-situ resources utilization. J. Mater. Metall.. 2022, 21(2): 79

[89] Allen PH, Prisbrey KA, Detering B. Plasma processing of lunar ilmenite to produce oxygen. Proceedings of the Engineering, Construction, and Operations in Space. 1988411

[90] Li P, Wang SJ, Li XY, Tang H, Chen F. Review of oxygen production using oxygenous minerals on the Moon. Bull. Mineral. Petrol. Geochem.. 2009, 28(2): 183

[91] Fray DJ. Anodic and cathodic reactions in molten calcium chloride. Can. Metall. Q.. 2002, 41(4): 433

[92] Chen GZ, Fray DJ, Farthing TW. Direct electrochemical reduction of titanium dioxide to titanium in molten calcium chloride. Nature. 2000, 407: 361

[93] Ono K, Suzuki RO. A new concept for producing Ti sponge: Calciothermic reduction. JOM. 2002, 54(2): 59

[94] Chen GZ. Interactions of molten salts with cathode products in the FFC Cambridge process. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater.. 2020, 27(12): 1572

[95] B.A. Lomax, M. Conti, N. Khan, N.S. Bennett, A.Y. Ganin, and M.D. Symes, Proving the viability of an electrochemical process for the simultaneous extraction of oxygen and production of metal alloys from lunar regolith, Planet. Space Sci., 180(2020), art. No. 104748.

[96] Schwandt C, Hamilton JA, Fray DJ, Crawford IA. The production of oxygen and metal from lunar regolith. Planet. Space Sci.. 2012, 74(1): 49

[97] Ono K. Fundamental aspects of calciothermic process to produce titanium. Mater. Trans.. 2004, 45(5): 1660

[98] Kvande H, Haupin W. Inert anodes for AI smelters: Energy balances and environmental impact. JOM. 2001, 53(5): 29

[99] Grjotheim K, Malinovsky M, Matiasovsky K. The effect of different additives on the conductivity of cryolite-alumina melts. JOM. 1969, 21(1): 28

[100] Xi XL, Feng M, Zhang LW, Nie ZR. Applications of molten salt and progress of molten salt electrolysis in secondary metal resource recovery. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater.. 2020, 27(12): 1599

[101] Kilby KT, Jiao SQ, Fray DJ. Current efficiency studies for graphite and SnO₂-based anodes for the electro-deoxid-ation of metal oxides. Electrochim. Acta. 2010, 55(23): 7126

[102] Barnett R, Kilby KT, Fray DJ. Reduction of tantalum pentoxide using graphite and tin-oxide-based anodes via the FFC-Cambridge process. Metall. Mater. Trans. B. 2009, 40(2): 150

[103] Jiao SQ, Kumar KNP, Kilby KT, Fray DJ. Preparation and electrical properties of xCaRuO₃/(1−x)CaTiO₃ perovskite composites. Mater. Res. Bull.. 2009, 44(8): 1738

[104] Jiao SQ, Fray DJ. Development of an inert anode for electrowinning in calcium chloride–calcium oxide melts. Metall. Mater. Trans. B. 2010, 41(1): 74

[105] Hu LW, Song Y, Ge JB, Jiao SQ, Cheng J. Electrochemical metallurgy in CaCl₂–CaO melts on the basis of TiO₂·RuO₂ inert anode. J. Electrochem. Soc.. 2016, 163(3): E33

[106] Jiao SQ, Jiao HD, Song WL, Wang MY, Tu JG. A review on liquid metals as cathodes for molten salt/oxide electrolysis. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater.. 2020, 27(12): 1588

[107] Semkow KW, Sammells AF. The indirect electrochemical refining of lunar ores. J. Electrochem. Soc.. 1987, 134(8): 2088

[108] Shi ZN, Xie KY, Guan PP, et al. . Aluminothermic reduction of lunar soil simulant ilmenite in cryolite molten salt media. Rare. Metal. Mat. Eng.. 2016, 45(5): 1278

[109] Xie KY, Shi ZN, Xu JL, Hu XW, Gao BL, Wang ZW. Aluminothermic reduction-molten salt electrolysis using inert anode for oxygen and Al-base alloy extraction from lunar soil simulant. JOM. 2017, 69(10): 1963

[110] Liu AM, Li LX, Xu JL, et al. . Preparation of Al–Si master alloy by electrochemical reduction of fly ash in molten salt. JOM. 2014, 66(5): 694

[111] Liu AM, Shi ZN, Hu XW, et al. . Production of metals and oxygen from coal fly ash by aluminothothermic and electrochemical reduction process. J. Alloys Compd.. 2017, 718: 279

[112] Liu AM, Shi ZN, Hu XW, Gao BL, Wang ZW. Lunar soil simulant electrolysis using inert anode for Al–Si alloy and oxygen production. J. Electrochem. Soc.. 2017, 164(2): H126

[113] Haskin LA, Colson RO, Lindstrom DJ, Lewis RH, Semkow KW. Electrolytic smelting of lunar rock for oxygen, iron, and silicon. Proceedings of the Second Conference on Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century. 1992411

[114] M.Y. Wang, H.D. Jiao, Z.H. Pu, et al., Ultra-high temperature molten oxide electrochemistry, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 61(2022), No. 32, art. No. e202206482.

[115] Sirk AH, Sadoway DR, Sibille L. Direct electrolysis of molten lunar regolith for the production of oxygen and metals on the moon. ECS Trans.. 2010, 28(6): 367

[116] Sibille L, Sadoway D, Sirk A, et al. . Recent advances in scale-up development of molten regolith electrolysis for oxygen production in support of a lunar base. Proceedings of the 47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition. 2009659

[117] Schreiner S, Sibille L, Dominguez J, Sirk A, Hoffman J, Sanders G. Development of a molten regolith electrolysis reactor model for lunar in-situ resource utilization. Proceedings of the 8th Symposium on Space Resource Utilization. 20151180

[118] Khetpal D, Ducret AC, Sadoway DR. From oxygen generation to metals production: In situ resource utilization by molten oxide electrolysis. Proceedings of the 2002 Micro-gravity Materials Science Conference. 2003548

[119] Kim H, Paramore JD, Allanore A, Sadoway DR. Stability of iridium anode in molten oxide electrolysis for iron-making: Influence of slag basicity. ECS Trans.. 2010, 33(7): 219

[120] D.H. Wang, A.J. Gmitter, and D.R. Sadoway, Production of oxygen gas and liquid metal by electrochemical decomposition of molten iron oxide, J. Electrochem. Soc., 158(2011), No. 6, art. No. E51.

[121] H. Kim, J. Paramore, A. Allanore, and D.R. Sadoway, Electrolysis of molten iron oxide with an iridium anode: The role of electrolyte basicity, J. Electrochem. Soc., 158(2011), No. 10, art. No. E101.

[122] Allanore A, Yin L, Sadoway DR. A new anode material for oxygen evolution in molten oxide electrolysis. Nature. 2013, 497(7449): 353

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

University of Science and Technology Beijing