Solid electrolyte-electrode interface based on buffer therapy in solid-state lithium batteries

Abstract

In the past few years, the all-solid lithium battery has attracted worldwide attentions, the ionic conductivity of some all-solid lithium-ion batteries has reached 10⁻³–10⁻² S/cm, indicating that the transport of lithium ions in solid electrolytes is no longer a major problem. However, some interface issues become research hotspots. Examples of these interfacial issues include the electrochemical decomposition reaction at the electrode-electrolyte interface; the low effective contact area between the solid electrolyte and the electrode etc. In order to solve the issues, researchers have pursued many different approaches. The addition of a buffer layer between the electrode and the solid electrolyte has been at the center of this endeavor. In this review paper, we provide a systematic summarization of the problems on the electrode-solid electrolyte interface and detailed reflection on the latest works of buffer-based therapies, and the review will end with a personal perspective on the improvement of buffer-based therapies.

Keywords

solid-state lithium-ion batteries / solid electrolyte / buffer layer / interface

References

[1] Whittingham MS. Lithium batteries and cathode materials. Chem. Rev., 2004, 104(10): 4271.

[2] Li WD, Song BH, Manthiram A. High-voltage positive electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Chem. Soc. Rev., 2017, 46(10): 3006.

[3] Zhan C, Wu TP, Lu J, Amine K. Dissolution, migration, and deposition of transition metal ions in Li-ion batteries exemplified by Mn-based cathodes—A critical review. Energy Environ. Sci., 2018, 11(2): 243.

[4] L. Fan, S.Y. Wei, S.Y. Li, Q. Li, and Y.Y. Lu, Recent progress of the solid-state electrolytes for high-energy metal-based batteries, Adv. Energy Mater., 8(2018), No. 11, art. No. 1702657.

[5] C.P. Yang, K. Fu, Y. Zhang, E. Hitz, and L.B. Hu, Protected lithium-metal anodes in batteries: From liquid to solid, Adv. Mater., 29(2017), No. 36, art. No. 1701169.

[6] Sun CW, Liu J, Gong YD, Wilkinson DP, Zhang JJ. Recent advances in all-solid-state rechargeable lithium batteries. Nano Energy, 2017, 33, 363.

[7] Guo LF, Zhang SY, Xie J, Zhen D, Jin Y, Wan KY, Zhuang DG, Zheng WQ, Zhao XB. Controlled synthesis of nanosized Si by magnesiothermic reduction from diatomite as anode material for Li-ion batteries. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 2020, 27(4): 515.

[8] Dong ZT, Li Y, Ren KL, Yang SQ, Zhao YM, Yuan YJ, Zhang L, Han SM. Enhanced electrochemical properties of LaFeO₃ with Ni modification for MH-Ni batteries. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 2018, 25(10): 1201.

[9] Wang LP, Chen G, Shen QX, Li GM, Guan SY, Li B. Direct electrodeposition of ionic liquid-based template-free SnCo alloy nanowires as an anode for Li-ion batteries. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 2018, 25(9): 1027.

[10] X.P. Liang, F.H. Tan, F. Wei, and J. Du, Research progress of all solid-state thin film lithium battery, IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci., 218(2019), art. No. 012138.

[11] Stanley Whittingham M, Omenya F, Siu C. Solid State Ionics — the key to the discovery, introduction and domination of lithium batteries for portable energy storage. Solid State Ionics, 2018, 317, 60.

[12] Banerjee A, Wang XF, Fang CC, Wu EA, Meng YS. Interfaces and interphases in all-solid-state batteries with inorganic solid electrolytes. Chem. Rev., 2020, 120(14): 6878.

[13] J. Zhang, C. Zheng, L.J. Li, Y. Xia, H. Huang, Y.P. Gan, C. Liang, X.P. He, X.Y. Tao, and W.K. Zhang, Lithium batteries: Unraveling the intra and intercycle interfacial evolution of Li₆PS₅Cl-based all-solid-state lithium batteries, Adv. Energy Mater., 10(2020), No. 4, art. No. 2070017.

[14] Aguesse F, Manalastas W, Buannic L, Lopez del Amo JM, Singh G, Llordés A, Kilner J. Investigating the dendritic growth during full cell cycling of garnet electrolyte in direct contact with Li metal. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2017, 9(4): 3808.

[15] Zhao FP, Zhao Y, Wang J, Sun Q, Adair K, Zhang SM, Luo J, Li JJ, Li WH, Sun YP, Li XN, Liang JW, Wang CH, Li RY, Huang H, Zhang L, Zhao SQ, Lu SG, Sun XL. Tuning bifunctional interface for advanced sulfide-based all-solid-state batteries. Energy Storage Mater., 2020, 33, 139.

[16] Goodenough JB, Kim Y. Challenges for rechargeable Li batteries. Chem. Mater., 2010, 22(3): 587.

[17] S.D. Tao, J. Li, R. Hu, L.H. Wang, Z.X. Chi, and T.F. Li, 3Li₂S-2MoS₂ filled composite polymer PVDF-HFP/LiODFB electrolyte with excellent interface performance for lithium metal batteries, Appl. Surf. Sci., 536(2021), art. No. 147794.

[18] Nair JR, Colo F, Kazzazi A, Moreno M, Bresser D, Lin RY, Bella F, Meligrana G, Fantini S, Simonetti E, Appetecchi GB, Passerini S, Gerbaldi C. Room temperature ionic liquid (RTIL)-based electrolyte cocktails for safe, high working potential Li-based polymer batteries. J. Power Sources, 2019, 412, 398.

[19] Zhao CZ, Zhao BC, Yan C, Zhang XQ, Huang JQ, Mo YF, Xu XX, Li H, Zhang Q. Liquid phase therapy to solid electrolyte-electrode interface in solid-state Li metal batteries: A review. Energy Storage Mater., 2020, 24, 75.

[20] Singh M, Singh AK. Space charge layer induced superionic conduction and charge transport behaviour of “alkali carbonates and tri-doped ceria nanocomposites” for LT-SOFCs applications. Ceram. Int., 2021, 47(1): 1218.

[21] Zheng C, Li LJ, Wang K, Wang C, Zhang J, Xia Y, Huang H, Liang C, Gan YP, He XP, Tao XY, Zhang WK. Interfacial reactions in inorganic all-solid-state lithium batteries. Batteries Supercaps, 2021, 4(1): 8.

[22] Hayashi A, Muramatsu H, Ohtomo T, Hama S, Tatsumisago M. Improved chemical stability and cyclability in Li₂S-P₂S₅-P₂O₅-ZnO composite electrolytes for all-solid-state rechargeable lithium batteries. J. Alloys Compd., 2014, 591, 247.

[23] Hu SK, Cheng GH, Cheng MY, Hwang BJ, Santhanam R. Cycle life improvement of ZrO₂-coated spherical LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂ cathode material for lithium ion batteries. J. Power Sources, 2009, 188(2): 564.

[24] Sakuda A, Hayashi A, Tatsumisago M. Electrochemical performance of all-solid-state lithium secondary batteries improved by the coating of Li₂O-TiO₂ films on LiCoO₂ electrode. J. Power Sources, 2010, 195(2): 599.

[25] Ito S, Fujiki S, Yamada T, Aihara Y, Park Y, Kim TY, Baek SW, Lee JM, Doo S, Machida N. A rocking chair type all-solid-state lithium ion battery adopting Li₂O-ZrO₂ coated LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Al_0.05O₂ and a sulfide based electrolyte. J. Power Sources, 2014, 248, 943.

[26] J. Cho, Y.J. Kim, and B. Park, LiCoO₂ cathode material that does not show a phase transition from hexagonal to monoclinic phase, J. Electrochem. Soc., 148(2001), No. 10, art. No. A1110.

[27] Jo CH, Cho DH, Noh HJ, Yashiro H, Sun YK, Myung ST. An effective method to reduce residual lithium compounds on Ni-rich Li[Ni_0.6Co_0.2Mn_0.2]O₂ active material using a phosphoric acid derived Li₃PO₄ nanolayer. Nano Res., 2015, 8(5): 1464.

[28] Sahni K, Ashuri M, He QR, Sahore R, Bloom ID, Liu YZ, Kaduk JA, Shaw LL. H₃PO₄ treatment to enhance the electrochemical properties of Li(Ni_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3)O₂ and Li(Ni_0.5Mn_0.3Co_0.2)O₂ cathodes. Electrochim. Acta, 2019, 301, 8.

[29] Deng SX, Li X, Ren ZH, Li WH, Luo J, Liang JW, Liang JN, Banis MN, Li MS, Zhao Y, Li XN, Wang CH, Sun YP, Sun Q, Li RY, Hu YF, Huang H, Zhang L, Lu SG, Luo J, Sun XL. Dual-functional interfaces for highly stable Ni-rich layered cathodes in sulfide all-solid-state batteries. Energy Storage Mater., 2020, 27, 117.

[30] Yan PF, Zheng JM, Liu J, Wang BQ, Cheng XP, Zhang YF, Sun XL, Wang CM, Zhang JG. Tailoring grain boundary structures and chemistry of Ni-rich layered cathodes for enhanced cycle stability of lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Energy, 2018, 3(7): 600.

[31] Zhang ZS, Zhang L, Liu YY, Wang HQ, Yu C, Zeng H, Wang LM, Xu B. Interface-engineered Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂-based garnet solid electrolytes with suppressed Li-dendrite formation and enhanced electrochemical performance. Chem-SusChem, 2018, 11(21): 3774

[32] Gao HC, Xue LG, Xin S, Park K, Goodenough JB. A plastic-crystal electrolyte interphase for all-solid-state sodium batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2017, 56(20): 5541.

[33] Zhou YM, Zhang FR, He PX, Zhang YH, Sun YY, Xu JJ, Hu JC, Zhang HY, Wu XD. Quasi-solid-state polymer plastic crystal electrolyte for subzero lithium-ion batteries. J. Energy Chem., 2020, 46, 87.

[34] Alarco PJ, Abu-Lebdeh Y, Abouimrane A, Armand M. The plastic-crystalline phase of succinonitrile as a universal matrix for solid-state ionic conductors. Nat. Mater., 2004, 3(7): 476.

[35] D. Zhou, Y.B. He, R.L. Liu, M. Liu, H.D. Du, B.H. Li, Q. Cai, Q.H. Yang, and F.Y. Kang, In situ synthesis of a hierarchical all-solid-state electrolyte based on nitrile materials for high-performance lithium-ion batteries, Adv. Energy Mater., 5(2015), No. 15, art. No. 1500353.

[36] Li XL, Qian K, He YB, Liu C, An DC, Li YY, Zhou D, Lin ZQ, Li BH, Yang QH, Kang FY. A dual-functional gel-polymer electrolyte for lithium ion batteries with superior rate and safety performances. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2017, 5(35): 18888.

[37] D. Zhou, R.L. Liu, Y.B. He, F.Y. Li, M. Liu, B.H. Li, Q.H. Yang, Q. Cai, and F.Y. Kang, SiO₂ hollow nanosphere-based composite solid electrolyte for lithium metal batteries to suppress lithium dendrite growth and enhance cycle life, Adv. Energy Mater., 6(2016), No. 7, art. No. 1502214.

[38] Zhang J, Zheng C, Lou JT, Xia Y, Liang C, Huang H, Gan YP, Tao XY, Zhang WK. Poly(ethylene oxide) reinforced Li₆PS₅Cl composite solid electrolyte for all-solid-state lithium battery: Enhanced electrochemical performance, mechanical property and interfacial stability. J. Power Sources, 2019, 412, 78.

[39] Zhang J, Zhong HY, Zheng C, Xia Y, Liang C, Huang H, Gan YP, Tao XY, Zhang WK. All-solid-state batteries with slurry coated LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ composite cathode and Li₆PS₅Cl electrolyte: Effect of binder content. J. Power Sources, 2018, 391, 73.

[40] Xue ZG, He D, Xie XL. Poly(ethylene oxide)-based electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2015, 3(38): 19218.

[41] Wang CH, Yang YF, Liu XJ, Zhong H, Xu H, Xu ZB, Shao HX, Ding F. Suppression of lithium dendrite formation by using LAGP-PEO (LiTFSI) composite solid electrolyte and lithium metal anode modified by PEO (LiTFSI) in all-solid-state lithium batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2017, 9(15): 13694.

[42] Wu N, Chien PH, Qian YM, Li YT, Xu HH, Grundish NS, Xu BY, Jin HB, Hu YY, Yu GH, Goodenough JB. Enhanced surface interactions enable fast Li⁺ conduction in oxide/polymer composite electrolyte. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2020, 59(10): 4131.

[43] T. Asano, A. Sakai, S. Ouchi, M. Sakaida, A. Miyazaki, and S. Hasegawa, Solid halide electrolytes with high lithium-ion conductivity for application in 4 V class bulk-type all-solid-state batteries, Adv. Mater., 30(2018), No. 44, art. No. 1803075.

[44] C.H. Wang, J.W. Liang, M. Jiang, X.N. Li, S. Mukherjee, K. Adair, M. Zheng, Y. Zhao, F.P. Zhao, S.M. Zhang, R.Y. Li, H. Huang, S.Q. Zhao, L. Zhang, S.G. Lu, C.V. Singh, and X.L. Sun, Interface-assisted in situ growth of halide electrolytes eliminating interfacial challenges of all-inorganic solid-state batteries, Nano Energy, 76(2020), art. No. 105015.

[45] Kim DH, Oh DY, Park KH, Choi YE, Nam YJ, Lee HA, Lee SM, Jung YS. Infiltration of solution-processable solid electrolytes into conventional Li-ion-battery electrodes for all-solid-state Li-ion batteries. Nano Lett., 2017, 17(5): 3013.

[46] Miura A, Rosero-Navarro NC, Sakuda A, Tadanaga K, Phuc NHH, Matsuda A, Machida N, Hayashi A, Tatsumisago M. Liquid-phase syntheses of sulfide electrolytes for all-solid-state lithium battery. Nat. Rev. Chem., 2019, 3(3): 189.

[47] K.H. Park, Q. Bai, D.H. Kim, D.Y. Oh, Y.Z. Zhu, Y.F. Mo, and Y.S. Jung, Design strategies, practical considerations, and new solution processes of sulfide solid electrolytes for all-solid-state batteries, Adv. Energy Mater., 8(2018), No. 18, art. No. 1800035.

[48] Chen SR, Niu CJ, Lee H, Li QY, Yu L, Xu W, Zhang JG, Dufek EJ, Whittingham MS, Meng S, Xiao J, Liu J. Critical parameters for evaluating coin cells and pouch cells of rechargeable Li-metal batteries. Joule, 2019, 3(4): 1094.

[49] Gao Y, Yan ZF, Gray JL, He X, Wang DW, Chen TH, Huang QQ, Li YC, Wang HY, Kim SH, Mallouk TE, Wang DH. Polymer-inorganic solid-electrolyte interphase for stable lithium metal batteries under lean electrolyte conditions. Nat. Mater., 2019, 18(4): 384.

[50] Wenzel S, Weber DA, Leichtweiss T, Busche MR, Sann J, Janek J. Interphase formation and degradation of charge transfer kinetics between a lithium metal anode and highly crystalline Li₇P₃S₁₁ solid electrolyte. Solid State Ionics, 2016, 286, 24.

[51] Zhang XQ, Chen X, Hou LP, Li BQ, Cheng XB, Huang JQ, Zhang Q. Regulating anions in the solvation sheath of lithium ions for stable lithium metal batteries. ACS Energy Lett., 2019, 4(2): 411.

[52] Zheng BZ, Zhu JP, Wang HC, Feng M, Umeshbabu E, Li YX, Wu QH, Yang Y. Stabilizing Li₁₀SnP₂S₁₂/Li interface via an in situ formed solid electrolyte interphase layer. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2018, 10(30): 25473.

[53] Richards WD, Miara LJ, Wang Y, Kim JC, Ceder G. Interface stability in solid-state batteries. Chem. Mater., 2016, 28(1): 266.

[54] Kasemchainan J, Zekoll S, Jolly DS, Ning ZY, Hartley GO, Marrow J, Bruce PG. Critical stripping current leads to dendrite formation on plating in lithium anode solid electrolyte cells. Nat. Mater., 2019, 18(10): 1105.

[55] Masias A, Felten N, Garcia-Mendez R, Wolfenstine J, Sakamoto J. Elastic, plastic, and creep mechanical properties of lithium metal. J. Mater. Sci., 2019, 54(3): 2585.

[56] J.M. Doux, H. Nguyen, D.H.S. Tan, A. Banerjee, X.F. Wang, E.A. Wu, C. Jo, H.D. Yang, and Y.S. Meng, Stack pressure considerations for room-temperature all-solid-state lithium metal batteries, Adv. Energy Mater., 10(2020), No. 1, art. No. 1903253.

[57] Wang YX, Liu TJ, Kumar J. Effect of pressure on lithium metal deposition and stripping against sulfide-based solid electrolytes. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2020, 12(31): 34771.

[58] Wang CW, Gong YH, Liu BY, Fu K, Yao YG, Hitz E, Li YJ, Dai JQ, Xu SM, Luo W, Wachsman ED, Hu LB. Conformal, nanoscale ZnO surface modification of garnet-based solid-state electrolyte for lithium metal anodes. Nano Lett., 2017, 17(1): 565.

[59] Han XG, Gong YH, Fu K, He XF, Hitz GT, Dai JQ, Pearse A, Liu BY, Wang H, Rubloff G, Mo YF, Thangadurai V, Wachsman ED, Hu LB. Negating interfacial impedance in garnet-based solid-state Li metal batteries. Nat. Mater., 2017, 16(5): 572.

[60] J.T. Lou, G.G. Wang, Y. Xia, C. Liang, H. Huang, Y.P. Gan, X.Y. Tao, J. Zhang, and W.K. Zhang, Achieving efficient and stable interface between metallic lithium and garnet-type solid electrolyte through a thin indium tin oxide interlayer, J. Power Sources, 448(2020), art. No. 227440.

[61] Zhou WD, Wang SF, Li YT, Xin S, Manthiram A, Goodenough JB. Plating a dendrite-free lithium anode with a polymer/ceramic/polymer sandwich electrolyte. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2016, 138(30): 9385.

[62] Schwöbel A, Hausbrand R, Jaegermann W. Interface reactions between LiPON and lithium studied by in-sttu X-ray photoemission. Solid State Ionics, 2015, 273, 51.

[63] Zhu YZ, He XF, Mo YF. Origin of outstanding stability in the lithium solid electrolyte materials: Insights from thermodynamic analyses based on first-principles calculations. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2015, 7(42): 23685.

[64] Y.Z. Zhu, X.F. He, and Y.F. Mo, Strategies based on nitride materials chemistry to stabilize Li metal anode, Adv. Sci., 4(2017), No. 8, art. No. 1600517.

[65] Kızılaslan A, Akbulut H. Assembling all-solid-state lithium-sulfur batteries with Li₃N-protected anodes. ChemPlusChem, 2019, 84(2): 183.

[66] Banerjee A, Tang HM, Wang XF, Cheng JH, Nguyen H, Zhang MH, Tan DHS, Wynn TA, Wu EA, Doux JM, Wu TP, Ma L, Sterbinsky GE, D’Souza MS, Ong SP, Meng YS. Revealing nanoscale solid-solid interfacial phenomena for long-life and high-energy all-solid-state batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2019, 11(46): 43138.

[67] Hassoun J, Scrosati B. Moving to a solid-state configuration: A valid approach to making lithium-sulfur batteries viable for practical applications. Adv. Mater., 2010, 22(45): 5198.

[68] Swamy T, Chen XW, Chiang YM. Electrochemical redox behavior of Li ion conducting sulfide solid electrolytes. Chem. Mater., 2019, 31(3): 707.

[69] Tan DHS, Wu EA, Nguyen H, Chen Z, Marple MAT, Doux JM, Wang XF, Yang HD, Banerjee A, Meng YS. Elucidating reversible electrochemical redox of Li₆PS₅Cl solid electrolyte. ACS Energy Lett., 2019, 4(10): 2418.

[70] Zhang J, Li LJ, Zheng C, Xia Y, Gan YP, Huang H, Liang C, He XP, Tao XY, Zhang WK. Silicon-doped argyrodite solid electrolyte Li₆PS₅I with improved ionic conductivity and interfacial compatibility for high-performance all-solid-state lithium batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2020, 12(37): 41538.

[71] Culver SP, Koerver R, Krauskopf T, Zeier WG. Designing ionic conductors: The interplay between structural phenomena and interfaces in thiophosphate-based solid-state batteries. Chem. Mater., 2018, 30(13): 4179.

[72] F.D. Han, Y.Z. Zhu, X.F. He, Y.F. Mo, and C.S. Wang, Electrochemical stability of Li₁₀GeP₂S₁₂ and Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ solid electrolytes, Adv. Energy Mater., 6(2016), No. 8, art. No. 1501590.

[73] C.H. Wang, J.W. Liang, S. Hwang, X.N. Li, Y. Zhao, K. Adair, C.T. Zhao, X. Li, S.X. Deng, X.T. Lin, X.F. Yang, R.Y. Li, H. Huang, L. Zhang, S.G. Lu, D. Su, and X.L. Sun, Unveiling the critical role of interfacial ionic conductivity in all-solid-state lithium batteries, Nano Energy, 72(2020), art. No. 104686.

[74] Kim J, Kim J, Avdeev M, Yun H, Kim SJ. LiTa₂PO₈: A fast lithium-ion conductor with new framework structure. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2018, 6(45): 22478.

[75] S.D. Dong, Y. Zhou, C.X. Hai, J.B. Zeng, Y.X. Sun, Y. Shen, X. Li, X.F. Ren, C. Sun, G.T. Zhang, and Z.W. Wu, Understanding electrochemical performance improvement with Nb doping in lithium-rich manganese-based cathode materials, J. Power Sources, 462(2020), art. No. 228185.

[76] Z.H. Cai, Y. Huang, W.C. Zhu, and R.G. Xiao, Increase in ionic conductivity of NASICON-type solid electrolyte Li_1.5Al_0.5 Ti_1.5(PO₄)₃ by Nb₂O₅ doping, Solid State Ionics, 354(2020), art. No. 115399.

[77] Chang CM, Lee YI, Hong SH, Park HM. Spark plasma sintering of LiTi₂(PO₄)₃-based solid electrolytes. J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 2005, 88(7): 1803.

[78] Shang XF, Nemori H, Mitsuoka S, Mastuda Y, Takeda Y, Yamamoto O, Imanishi N. High lithium-ion conducting NASICON-type Li_1+x−yAl_xNb_yTi_2−x−y(PO₄)₃ solid electrolytes. Solid State Ionics, 2016, 297, 43.

[79] Zheng Z, Guo XD, Zhong YJ, Hua WB, Shen CH, Chou SL, Yang XS. Host structural stabilization of Li_1.232 Mn_0.615Ni_0.154O₂ through K-doping attempt: Toward superior electrochemical performances. Electrochim. Acta, 2016, 188, 336.

[80] R.P. Qing, J.L. Shi, D.D. Xiao, X.D. Zhang, Y.X. Yin, Y.B. Zhai, L. Gu, and Y.G. Guo, Enhancing the kinetics of Li-rich cathode materials through the pinning effects of gradient surface Na⁺ doping, Adv. Energy Mater., 6(2016), No. 6, art. No. 1501914.

[81] Auvergniot J, Cassel A, Foix D, Viallet V, Seznec V, Dedryvère R. Redox activity of argyrodite Li₆PS₅Cl electrolyte in all-solid-state Li-ion battery: An XPS study. Solid State Ionics, 2017, 300, 78.

[82] Wang Y, Richards WD, Ong SP, Miara LJ, Kim JC, Mo YF, Ceder G. Design principles for solid-state lithium superionic conductors. Nat. Mater., 2015, 14(10): 1026.

[83] Whiteley JM, Woo JH, Hu EY, Nam KW, Lee SH. Empowering the lithium metal battery through a silicon-based superionic conductor. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2014, 161(12): A1812.

[84] Nagpure SC, Bhushan B, Babu SS. Multi-scale characterization studies of aged Li-ion large format cells for improved performance: An overview. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2013, 160(11): A2111.

[85] Kabir MM, Demirocak DE. Degradation mechanisms in Li-ion batteries: A state-of-the-art review. Int. J. Energy Res., 2017, 41(14): 1963.

[86] Ramdon S, Bhushan B, Nagpure SC. In situ electrochemical studies of lithium-ion battery cathodes using atomic force microscopy. J. Power Sources, 2014, 249, 373.