Microstructure and mechanical properties of nickel-based superalloy fabricated by laser powder-bed fusion using recycled powders

Abstract

Evaluating the recyclability of powders in additive manufacturing has been a long-term challenge. In this study, the microstructure and mechanical properties of a nickel-based superalloy fabricated by laser powder-bed fusion (LPBF) using recycled powders were investigated. Re-melted powder surfaces, satellite particles, and deformed powders were found in the recycled powders, combined with a high-oxygen-content surface layer. The increasing oxygen content led to the formation of high-density oxide inclusions; moreover, printing-induced cracks widely occurred and mainly formed along the grain boundaries in the as-built LPBF nickel-based superalloys fabricated using recycled powders. A little change in the Si or Mn content did not increase the hot cracking susceptibility (HCS) of the printed parts. The changing aspect ratio and the surface damage of the recycled powders might contribute to increasing the crack density. Moreover, the configuration of cracks in the as-built parts led to anisotropic mechanical properties, mainly resulting in extremely low ductility vertical to the building direction, and the cracks mainly propagated along the cellular boundary owing to the existence of a brittle precipitation phase.

Keywords

laser powder-bed fusion / recycled powder / cracking / anisotropy / nickel-based superalloy

References

[1] E. MacDonald, and R. Wicker, Multiprocess 3D printing for increasing component functionality, Science, 353(2016), No. 6307, art. No. aaf2093.

[2] Skylar-Scott MA, Mueller J, Visser CW, Lewis JA. Voxelated soft matter via multimaterial multinozzle 3D printing. Nature, 2019, 575(7782): 330.

[3] Zhang DY, Sun SJ, Qiu D, Gibson MA, Dargusch MS, Brandt M, Qian M, Easton M. Metal Alloys for Fusion-Based Additive Manufacturing. Adv. Eng. Mater., 2018, 20(5): 1700952.

[4] Noskov AI, Gilmutdinov AK, Yanbaev RM. Effect of coaxial laser cladding parameters on bead formation. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 2017, 24(5): 550.

[5] Kong DC, Dong CF, Ni XQ, Zhang L, Man C, Zhu GL, Yao JZ, Wang L, Cheng XQ, Li XQ. Effect of TiC content on the mechanical and corrosion properties of Inconel 718 alloy fabricated by a high-throughput dual-feed laser metal deposition system. J. Alloys Compd., 2019, 803, 637.

[6] Kong DC, Dong CF, Ni XQ, Zhang L, Man C, Yao JZ, Ji YC, Ying YP, Xiao K, Cheng XQ, Li XQ. High-throughput fabrication of nickel-based alloys with different Nb contents via a dual-feed additive manufacturing system: Effect of Nb content on microstructural and mechanical properties. J. Alloys Compd., 2019, 785, 826.

[7] D.C. Kong, C.F. Dong, X.Q. Ni, L. Zhang, H. Luo, R.X. Li, L. Wang, C. Man, and X.G. Li, Superior resistance to hydrogen damage for selective laser melted 316L stainless steel in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell environment, Corros. Sci., 166(2020), art. No. 108425.

[8] Bourell DL. Perspectives on Additive Manufacturing. Ann. Rev. Mater. Res., 2016, 46(1): 1.

[9] Murr LE, Martinez E, Amato KN, Gaytan SM, Hernandez J, Ramirez DA, Shindo PW, Medina F, Wicker RB. Fabrication of metal and alloy components by additive manufacturing: examples of 3D materials science. J. Mater. Res. Technol., 2012, 1(1): 42.

[10] D.C. Kong, C.F. Dong, X.Q. Ni, L. Zhang, H. Luo, R.X. Li, L. Wang, C. Man, and X.G. Li, The passivity of selective laser melted 316L stainless steel, Appl. Surf. Sci., 504(2020), art. No. 144495.

[11] Van Bael S, Chai YC, Truscello S, Moesen M, Kerckhofs G, Van Oosterwyck H, Kruth JP, Schrooten J. The effect of pore geometry on the in vitro biological behavior of human periosteum-derived cells seeded on selective laser-melted Ti6Al4V bone scaffolds. Acta Biomater., 2012, 8(7): 2824.

[12] C. Haase, J. Bultmann, J. Hof, S. Ziegler, S. Bremen, C. Hinke, A. Schwedt, U. Prahl, and W. Bleck, Exploiting process-related advantages of selective laser melting for the production of high-manganese steel, Materials, 10(2017), No. 1, art. No. 56.

[13] Pauly S, Löber L, Petters R, Stoica M, Scudino S, Kühn U, Eckert J. Processing metallic glasses by selective laser melting. Mater. Today, 2013, 16(1–2): 37.

[14] Yadroitsev I, Thivillon L, Bertrand P, Smurov I. Strategy of manufacturing components with designed internal structure by selective laser melting of metallic powder. Appl. Surf. Sci., 2007, 254(4): 980.

[15] Kong DC, Ni XQ, Dong CF, Lei XW, Zhang L, Man C, Yao JZ, Cheng XQ, Li XG. Bio-functional and anti-corrosive 3D printing 316L stainless steel fabricated by selective laser melting. Mater. Des., 2018, 152, 88.

[16] Ni XQ, Kong DC, Wen Y, Zhang L, Wu WH, He BB, Lu L, Zhu DX. Anisotropy in mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of 316L stainless steel fabricated by selective laser melting. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 2019, 26(3): 319.

[17] Martin JH, Yahata BD, Hundley JM, Mayer JA, Schaedler TA, Pollock TM. 3D printing of high-strength aluminium alloys. Nature, 2017, 549(7672): 365.

[18] Zhou ZP, Huang L, Shang YJ, Li YP, Jiang L, Lei Q. Causes analysis on cracks in nickel-based single crystal superalloy fabricated by laser powder deposition additive manufacturing. Mater. Des., 2018, 160, 1238.

[19] Man C, Dong CF, Liu TT, Kong DC, Wang DK, Li XQ. The enhancement of microstructure on the passive and pitting behaviors of selective laser melting 316L SS in simulated body fluid. Appl. Surf. Sci., 2019, 467–468, 193.

[20] Maximenko AL, Olevsky EA. Pore filling during selective laser melting — assisted additive manufacturing of composites. Scripta Mater., 2018, 149, 75.

[21] Laquai R, Müller BR, Kasperovich G, Haubrich J, Requena G, Bruno G. X-ray refraction distinguishes unprocessed powder from empty pores in selective laser melting Ti-6Al-4V. Mater. Res. Lett., 2018, 6(2): 130.

[22] Li RD, Liu JH, Shi YS, Wang L, Jiang W. Balling behavior of stainless steel and nickel powder during selective laser melting process. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., 2012, 59, 1025.

[23] Gu DD, Shen YF. Balling phenomena in direct laser sintering of stainless steel powder: Metallurgical mechanisms and control methods. Mater. Des., 2009, 30(8): 2903.

[24] Zhou X, Liu XH, Zhang DD, Shen ZJ, Liu W. Balling phenomena in selective laser melted tungsten. J. Mater. Process Technol., 2015, 222, 33.

[25] Sanviemvongsak T, Monceau D, Macquaire B. High temperature oxidation of IN 718 manufactured by laser beam melting and electron beam melting: Effect of surface topography. Corros. Sci., 2018, 141, 127.

[26] Kong DC, Dong CF, Ni XQ, Li XQ. Corrosion of metallic materials fabricated by selective laser melting. npj Mater. Degrad., 2019, 3(1): 1.

[27] Ni XQ, Kong DC, Wu WH, Zhang L, Dong CF, He BB, Lu L, Wu KQ, Zhu DX. Corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel fabricated by selective laser melting under different scanning speeds. J. Mater. Eng. Perform., 2018, 27(7): 3667.

[28] Kong DC, Ni XQ, Dong CF, Zhang L, Man C, Yao JZ, Xiao K, Li XG. Heat treatment effect on the microstructure and corrosion behavior of 316L stainless steel fabricated by selective laser melting for proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Electrochim. Acta, 2018, 276, 293.

[29] Kong DC, Dong CF, Ni XQ, Zhang L, Yao JZ, Man C, Cheng XQ, Xiao K, Li XQ. Mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of selective laser melted 316L stainless steel after different heat treatment processes. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2019, 35(7): 1499.

[30] Gorsse S, Hutchinson C, Gouné M, Banerjee R. Additive manufacturing of metals: A brief review of the characteristic microstructures and properties of steels, Ti-6Al-4V and high-entropy alloys. Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater., 2017, 18(1): 584.

[31] C.Y. Yap, C.K. Chua, Z.L. Dong, Z.H. Liu, D.Q. Zhang, L.E. Loh, and S.L. Sing, Review of selective laser melting: Materials and applications, Appl. Phy. Rev., 2(2015), No. 4, art. No. 041101.

[32] Basha AKM, Srinivasan S, Srinivasan N. Studies on thermally grown oxide as an interface between plasma-sprayed coatings and a nickel-based superalloy substrate. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 2017, 24(6): 681.

[33] Sun Y, Aindow M, Hebert RJ. The effect of recycling on the oxygen distribution in Ti-6Al-4V powder for additive manufacturing. Mater. High Temp., 2018, 35(1–3): 217.

[34] Hadadzadeh A, Baxter C, Amirkhiz BS, Mohammadi M. Strengthening mechanisms in direct metal laser sintered AlSi10Mg: Comparison between virgin and recycled powders. Addit. Manuf., 2018, 23, 108.

[35] Tang HP, Qian M, Liu N, Zhang XZ, Yang GY, Wang J. Effect of powder reuse times on additive manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V by selective electron beam melting. JOM, 2015, 67(3): 555.

[36] Nguyen QB, Nai MLS, Zhu ZG, Sun CN, Wei J, Zhou W. Characteristics of inconel powders for powder-bed additive manufacturing. Engineering, 2017, 3(5): 695.

[37] P. Deng, M. Karadge, R.B. Rebak, V.K. Gupta, B.C. Prorok, and X.Y. Lou, The origin and formation of oxygen inclusions in austenitic stainless steels manufactured by laser powder bed fusion, Addit. Manuf., 35(2020), art. No. 101334.

[38] Narayanan BK, Duraiselvam M, Natarajan S, Anaz Khan M. Laser material processing of nickel superalloy for improved erosion resistance. Mater. Manuf. Process, 2017, 32(14): 1596.

[39] Feng YF, Zhou XM, Zou JW, Tian GF. Effect of cooling rate during quenching on the microstructure and creep property of nickel-based superalloy FGH96. Int. J. Miner. Metall. Mater., 2019, 26(4): 493.

[40] Qiu CL, Chen HX, Liu Q, Yue S, Wang HM. On the solidification behaviour and cracking origin of a nickel-based superalloy during selective laser melting. Mater. Charact., 2019, 148, 330.

[41] Zhang F, Levine LE, Allen AJ, Stoudt MR, Lindwall G, Lass EA, Williams ME, Idell Y, Campbell CE. Effect of heat treatment on the microstructural evolution of a nickelbased superalloy additive-manufactured by laser powder bed fusion. Acta Mater., 2018, 152, 200.

[42] Harrison NJ, Todd I, Mumtaz K. Reduction of microcracking in nickel superalloys processed by Selective Laser Melting: A fundamental alloy design approach. Acta Mater., 2015, 94, 59.

[43] Chen Y, Lu FG, Zhang K, Nie PL, Elmi Hosseini SR, Feng K, Li ZG. Dendritic microstructure and hot cracking of laser additive manufactured Inconel 718 under improved base cooling. J. Alloys Compd., 2016, 670, 312.

[44] Q.Q. Han, Y.C. Gu, R. Setchi, F. Lacan, R. Johnston, S.L. Evans, and S.F. Yang, Additive manufacturing of high-strength crack-free Ni-based Hastelloy X superalloy, Addit. Manuf., 30(2019), art. No. 100919.

[45] A.T. Sutton, C.S. Kriewall, S. Karnati, M.C. Leu, and J.W. Newkirk, Characterization of AISI 304L stainless steel powder recycled in the laser powder-bed fusion process, Addit. Manuf., 32(2020), art. No. 100981.

[46] Slotwinski JA, Garboczi EJ, Stutzman PE, Ferraris CF, Watson SS, Peltz MA. Characterization of metal powders used for additive manufacturing. J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol., 2014, 119, 460.

[47] Sun Y, Hebert RJ, Aindow M. Non-metallic inclusions in 17-4PH stainless steel parts produced by selective laser melting. Mater. Des., 2018, 140, 153.

[48] Murr LE, Gaytan SM, Ramirez DA, Martinez E, Hernandez J, Amato KN, Shindo PW, Medina FR, Wicker RB. Metal fabrication by additive manufacturing using laser and electron beam melting technologies. J. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2012, 28(1): 1.

[49] Wang YM, Voisin T, McKeown JT, Ye JC, Calta NP, Li Z, Zeng Z, Zhang Y, Chen W, Roehling TT, Ott RT, Santala MK, Depond PJ, Matthews MJ, Hamza AV, Zhu T. Additively manufactured hierarchical stainless steels with high strength and ductility. Nat. Mater., 2017, 17(1): 63.

[50] Yan FY, Xiong W, Faierson E, Olson GB. Characterization of nano-scale oxides in austenitic stainless steel processed by powder bed fusion. Scripta Mater., 2018, 155, 104.

[51] Smith TR, Sugar JD, San Marchi C, Schoenung JM. Strengthening mechanisms in directed energy deposited austenitic stainless steel. Acta Mater., 2019, 164, 728.

[52] Kong DC, Ni XQ, Dong CF, Zhang L, Man C, Yao JZ, Wang L, Xiao K, Li XG. Anisotropic response in mechanical and corrosion properties of hastelloy X fabricated by selective laser melting. Constr. Build. Mater., 2019, 221, 720.

[53] Wang G, Ouyang H, Guo Q, Li ZQ, Yan WT, Li Z, Fan C. The origin of high-density dislocations in additively manufactured metals. Mater. Res. Lett., 2020, 8(8): 283.

[54] Liu LF, Ding QQ, Zhong Y, Zou J, Wu J, Chiu YL, Li JX, Zhang Z, Yu Q, Shen ZJ. Dislocation network in additive manufactured steel breaks strength-ductility trade-off. Mater. Today, 2018, 21(4): 354.

[55] Li Z, He B, Guo Q. Strengthening and hardening mechanisms of additively manufactured stainless steels: The role of cell sizes. Scripta Mater., 2020, 177, 17.

[56] Chew Y, Bi GJ, Zhu ZG, Ng FL, Weng F, Liu SB, Nai SML, Lee BY. Microstructure and enhanced strength of laser aided additive manufactured CoCrFeNiMn high entropy alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2019, 744, 137.

[57] Wang Z, Huang YD, Srinivasan A, Liu Z, Beckmann F, Kainer KU, Hort N. Hot tearing susceptibility of binary Mg-Y alloy castings. Mater. Des., 2013, 47, 90.

[58] Easton MA, Gibson MA, Zhu S, Abbott TB. An a priori hot-tearing indicator applied to die-cast magnesium-rare earth alloys. Metall. Mater. Trans. A, 2014, 45(8): 3586.

[59] Wei ZQ, Wang Y, Liu Z. Effects of Zn and Y on hot-tearing susceptibility of Mg-xZn-2xY alloys. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2018, 34(16): 2001.

[60] Tomus D, Tian Y, Rometsch PA, Heilmaier M, Wu XH. Influence of post heat treatments on anisotropy of mechanical behaviour and microstructure of Hastelloy-X parts produced by selective laser melting. Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2016, 667, 42.

[61] Kong DC, Dong CF, Ni XQ, Zhang L, Man C, Li XG. Hetero-deformation induced stress in additively manufactured 316L stainless steel. Mater. Res. Lett., 2020, 8(10): 390.

[62] Kong DC, Ni XQ, Dong CF, Zhang L, Man C, Cheng XQ, Li XG. Anisotropy in the microstructure and mechanical property for the bulk and porous 316L stainless steel fabricated via selective laser melting. Mater. Lett., 2019, 235, 1.

[63] Q.Q. Han, Y.C. Gu, S. Soe, F. Lacan, and R. Setchi, Effect of hot cracking on the mechanical properties of Hastelloy X super-alloy fabricated by laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, Opt. Laser Technol., 124(2020), art. No. 105984.

[64] Wang XY, Kurosawa K, Huang M, Lu XK, Zhang D, Kokawa H, Yan YB, Yang S. Control of precipitation behaviour of Hastelloy-X through grain boundary engineering. Mater. Sci. Technol., 2017, 33(17): 2078.