Coupling mechanism between cyclic loading damage evolution and hydrogen permeation in impure rock salt

Abstract

Damage evolution and seepage behavior variations of rock salt under cyclic loading directly affect the long-term safety of the storage, especially the unclear damage-permeation coupling mechanism of impure rock salt. Through cyclic loading and hydrogen permeation tests, this study systematically investigated the damage evolution and permeability change patterns of impurity rock salt under different stress levels and cycle counts. Results show that the damage evolution presents the stage characteristics of ‘‘initial intense damage-gradual stable damage-final rapid damage”. High stress promotes the development of shear cracks and significantly increases the cumulative acoustic emission energy. Permeability increases nonlinearly with stress level and cycle number. Stress level determines the type of damage mechanism, while cycle number determines the degree of damage accumulation. And shear crack penetration is the main controlling factor for the formation of seepage channels. A permeability prediction model based on cumulative acoustic emission energy is established, enabling effective characterization of the damage-permeation coupling relationship. The research provides important theoretical basis for the sealing integrity and safe operation of salt cavern hydrogen storage.

Keywords

Underground hydrogen storage / Rock salt / Cyclic loading / Damage evolution / Seepage behavior

References

[1] Zhu SJ, Shi XL, Yang CH, Li YP, Li H, Yang K, et al. Hydrogen loss of salt cavern hydrogen storage. Renew Energy 2023; 218:119267.

[2] Cifuentes—Faura J. European Union policies and their role in combating climate change over the years. Air Qual Atmos Health 2022; 15(8):1333—40.

[3] Lockwood M. The political sustainability of climate policy: the case of the UK climate Change Act. Glob Environ Change 2013; 23(5):1339-48.

[4] Hou ZM, Xiong Y, Luo JS, Fang YL, Haris M, Chen QJ, et al. International experience of carbon neutrality and prospects of key technologies: Lessons for China. Petrol Sci 2023; 20(2):893-909.

[5] Hu BW, Yu LY, Mi XZ, Xu F, Li SC, Li W, et al. Comparative analysis of thermodynamic and mechanical responses between underground hydrogen storage and compressed air energy storage in lined rock Caverns. Int J Min Sci Technol 2024; 34(4):531—43.

[6] Zivar D, Kumar S, Foroozesh J. Underground hydrogen storage: a comprehensive review. Int J Hydrog Energy 2021; 46(45):23436—62.

[7] Chandra Muduli R, Kale P. Silicon nanostructures for solid—state hydrogen storage: a review. Int J Hydrog Energy 2023; 48(4):1401—39.

[8] Yin L, Yang HN, Ju YL. Review on the key technologies and future development of insulation structure for liquid hydrogen storage tanks. Int J Hydrog Energy 2024; 57:1302—15.

[9] Lin A, Bagnato G. Revolutionising energy storage: the latest Breakthrough in liquid organic hydrogen carriers. Int J Hydrog Energy 2024; 63:315—29.

[10] Yang NN, Deng J, Wang CP, Bai ZJ, Qu J. High pressure hydrogen leakage diffusion: Research progress. Int J Hydrog Energy 2024; 50:1029—46.

[11] Jafari Raad SM, Leonenko Y, Hassanzadeh H. Hydrogen storage in saline aquifers: Opportunities and challenges. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2022; 168:112846.

[12] Perera MSA. A review of underground hydrogen storage in depleted gas reservoirs: Insights into various rock—fluid interaction mechanisms and their impact on the process integrity. Fuel 2023; 334:126677.

[13] Zhu SJ, Shi XL, Yang CH, Bai WZ, Wei XX, Yang K, et al. Site selection evaluation for salt cavern hydrogen storage in China. Renew Energy 2024; 224:120143.

[14] Li QH, Liu W, Jiang LL, Ju YW, Hassanpouryouzband A, Zhang GM, et al. Harnessing sediment voids of low—grade salt mines for compressed air energy storage: Experimental and theoretical insights. Int J Min Sci Technol 2025; 35(8):1303—22.

[15] Liu W, Li YP, Yang CH, Daemen JJK, Yang Y, Zhang GM. Permeability characteristics of mudstone cap rock and interlayers in bedded salt formations and tightness assessment for underground gas storage Caverns. Eng Geol 2015; 193:212—23.

[16] Taheri SR, Pak A, Shad S, Mehrgini B, Razifar M. Investigation of rock salt layer creep and its effects on casing collapse. Int J Min Sci Technol 2020; 30(3):357-65.

[17] Li ZZ, Kang YF, Fan JY, Fourmeau M, Jiang DY, Nelias D. Creep—fatigue mechanical characteristics of salt rocks under triaxial loading: an experimental study. Eng Geol 2023; 322:107175.

[18] Tang LX, Fan JY, Li ZZ, Chen J, Liu W. A new constitutive model for salt rock under cyclic loadings based on state variables. Geoenergy Sci Eng 2024; 233:212433.

[19] Fan JY, Tang LX, Fourmeau M, Li ZZ, Liu WH, Zou Y, et al. A novel viscoplastic model for salt rock deformation under internal cyclic gas pressure loading. Int J Min Sci Technol 2025; 35(6):989-1004.

[20] Tarkowski R. Underground hydrogen storage: Characteristics and prospects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019; 105:86-94.

[21] Lyu C, Liu JF, Ren Y, Liang C, Zeng Y. Mechanical characteristics and permeability evolution of salt rock under thermal—hydro—mechanical (THM) coupling condition. Eng Geol 2022; 302:106633.

[22] Xiao WJ, Zhang DM, Wang XJ. Experimental study on progressive failure process and permeability characteristics of red sandstone under seepage pressure. Eng Geol 2020; 265:105406.

[23] Yang SQ, Huang YH. Effect of damage on gas seepage behavior of sandstone specimens. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 2020; 12(4):866-76.

[24] Stormont JC, Daemen JJK. Laboratory study of gas permeability changes in rock salt during deformation. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 1992; 29(4):325-42.

[25] Li ZZ, Suo JJ, Fan JY, Fourmeau M, Jiang DY, Nelias D. Damage evolution of rock salt under multilevel amplitude creep—fatigue loading with acoustic emission monitoring. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2023; 164:105346.

[26] Yang ZY, Fan JY, Chen J, Jiang DY, Suo JJ, Li ZZ. Dilatancy and acoustic emission characteristics of rock salt in variable—frequency fatigue tests. Rock Mech Rock Eng 2024; 57(12):10877-94.

[27] Fan JY, Chen J, Jiang DY, Chemenda A, Chen JC, Ambre J. Discontinuous cyclic loading tests of salt with acoustic emission monitoring. Int J Fatigue 2017; 94:140—4.

[28] Wang JB, Liu X, Zhang Q, Liu XR, Song ZP, Feng SJ. Fatigue properties and damage constitutive model of salt rock based on CT scanning. Int J Min Sci Technol 2024; 34(2):245—59.

[29] Li H, Ma HL, Yang CH, Zhao K, Hu ZW, Daemen JJK. Acoustic emission characteristics of rock salt under multi—stage cyclic loading. Int J Fatigue 2023; 176:107911.

[30] Liu WH, Jiang DY, Fan JY, Chen J, Liu W, Tang LX, et al. Experimental study on effect of cyclic gas pressure on mechanical and acoustic emission characteristics of salt rock. J Energy Storage 2024; 99:113410.

[31] Grgic D, Al Sahyouni F, Golfier F, Moumni M, Schoumacker L. Evolution of gas permeability of rock salt under different loading conditions and implications on the underground hydrogen storage in salt Caverns. Rock Mech Rock Eng 2022; 55(2):691-714.

[32] Tian H, Hong Y, Fan JY, Shi XL, Yang CH, Tang LX, et al. Experimental study on mechanical response characteristics and damage mechanism of salt rock under hydrogen permeation conditions. Int J Hydrog Energy 2024; 94:1476—90.

[33] Xie LZ, Yuan ZR, He B, Wang RX. Experimental and molecular dynamics studies on the multiscale permeability properties of various gases in salt rock. Energy 2024; 290:130079.

[34] Fairhurst CE, Hudson JA. Draft ISRM suggested method for the complete stress—strain curve for intact rock in uniaxial compression. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 1997; 1999(36):279-89.

[35] Huang J, Hu QT, Qin CZ, Song ZL, Wang XD. Pre—peak acoustic emission characteristics of tight sandstone failure under true triaxial stress. J Nat Gas Sci Eng 2022; 102:104576.

[36] Ohno K, Ohtsu M. Crack classification in concrete based on acoustic emission. Constr Build Mater 2010; 24(12):2339—46.

[37] Zhao K, Ma HL, Liang XP, Li XX, Liu YB, Cai R, et al. Damage evaluation of rock salt under multilevel cyclic loading with constant stress intervals using AE monitoring and CT scanning. J Petrol Sci Eng 2022; 208:109517.

[38] Kou MM, Liu XR, Wang ZQ, Tang SD. Laboratory investigations on failure, energy and permeability evolution of fissured rock—like materials under seepage pressures. Eng Fract Mech 2021; 247:107694.

[39] Fatah A, Al—Yaseri A, Theravalappil R, Radwan OA, Amao A, Al—Qasim AS. Geochemical reactions and pore structure analysis of anhydrite/gypsum/halite bearing reservoirs relevant to subsurface hydrogen storage in salt Caverns. Fuel 2024; 371:131857.

[40] Dodangoda C, G RP. Quantification of hydrogen depletion and mineral reactivity in underground hydrogen storage reservoirs. Gas Sci Eng 2024; 126:205318.

[41] Zhang ZP, Zhang R, Xie HP, Liu JF, Were P. Differences in the acoustic emission characteristics of rock salt compared with granite and marble during the damage evolution process. Environ Earth Sci 2015; 73(11):6987—99.

[42] Alkan H. Percolation model for dilatancy—induced permeability of the excavation damaged zone in rock salt. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2009; 46(4):716—24.

[43] Lu YL, Elsworth D, Wang LG. Microcrack—based coupled damage and flow modeling of fracturing evolution in permeable brittle rocks. Comput Geotech 2013; 49:226-44.

[44] Vu MN, Nguyen ST, To QD, Dao NH. Theoretical predicting of permeability evolution in damaged rock under compressive stress. Geophys J Int 2017; 209:1352-61.

[45] Aminu MD, Ali Nabavi S, Manovic V. CO₂—brine—rock interactions: the effect of impurities on grain size distribution and reservoir permeability. Int J Greenh Gas Control 2018; 78:168—76.

[46] Zhang HQ, He YN, Tang CA, Ahmad B, Han LJ. Application of an improved flow—stress—damage model to the criticality assessment of water inrush in a mine: a case study. Rock Mech Rock Eng 2009; 42(6):911-30.

[47] Chen XS, Li YP, Shi XL, Liu Q, Xiong TK. Microstructure, seepage regimes and stress—strain analysis of bedded rock salt interface. J Energy Storage 2025; 120:116521.

[48] Liang W, Cao M, Yang X, Zhang C, Xu S. Experimental study on creep of glauberite salt rock under coupled compression and dissolution. Chin J Rock Mech Eng 2016; 35(12):2461—70. in Chinese.

[49] Jiang Z, Jiang A, Li H, Wang S. Creep—seepage coupling laws of quartzite under cyclic loading—unloading conditions. Chin J Geotechn Eng 2017; 39(10):1832—41. in Chinese.