Towards sustainable lunar habitats with ISRU in Chang’E mission: Mechanical-energy evolution and damage mechanisms of LPBF-printed lunar regolith simulate

Abstract

Targeting Chang’E-8 mission’ in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) for sustainable lunar habitats, laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) provides a viable pathway for in-situ additive manufacturing of lunar regolith. To elucidate mission-relevant mechanical behavior and failure mechanisms of LPBF-fabricated lunar regolith simulants, mare-type and highland-type simulant specimens were produced. Microstructural characterization, mechanical test coupled with three-dimensional digital image correlation (3D-DIC), and an energy-dissipation framework were employed for comprehensive analysis. The pristine highland specimens achieved 5.79 MPa and a peak strain of 0.13 (50 mm × 50 mm × 30 mm), significantly outperforming their mare counterparts. Wire-cutting to 20 mm × 20 mm × 20 mm lowered strength by ∼ 20% and peak strain to 0.04, indicating cutting-induced defects reduce ductility. All specimens displayed multi-peaked stress-strain curves. 3D-DIC revealed band-type strain localization in pristine highland samples, diffuse strain patterns in cut highland samples, and highly tortuous, network-type bands in mare samples; the anisotropy index was also quantified. Fragmented particles exhibited fractal dimensions ranging from 1.6 to 2.0 (size 1.25-9 mm). Energy evolution progressed through three distinct stages: elastic energy storage, progressive energy dissipation delaying crack propagation, and final unstable collapse. An energy-based damage model was established and validated. The data and methods developed support Chang’E-8 missions’ ISRU demonstrations and establish a transferable framework toward sustainable lunar habitats.

Keywords

In-situ resource utilization / Laser powder bed fusion / Lunar habitats / Damage mechanism / Lunar regolith / Chang’E mission

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Sheng Li: Writing - review & editing, Writing - original draft, Visualization, Validation, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Xinyi Li: Writ-ing - review & editing, Writing - original draft, Visualization, Val-idation, Software, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Yuyue Gao: Writing - review & editing, Writing - original draft, Visualization, Validation, Supervi-sion, Software, Investigation, Formal analysis. Bo Zhou: Writing - review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis. Yan Zhou: Writing - review & editing, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis. Jian Song: Writing - review & editing, Software, Resources, Investigation, Formal analysis. Cheng Zhou: Writing -review & editing, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Wei Yao: Writing - review & editing, Visualiza-tion, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Data curation, Conceptualiza-tion. Lieyun Ding: Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-cial interests or personal relations hips that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Young Student Project of National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 525B2139), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Nos. 2023YFB3711300 and 2021YFF0500301), and the Space Application System of China Manned Space Program (No. KJZ-YY-WCL404). The LPBF bricks were prepared at Qian Xuesen Labora-tory using its lunar soil 3D printing equipment, and we sincerely acknowledge the laboratory for its support. Besides, we would like to express our sincere thanks to Master’s students Zhuo Chen and Zeyang Zhu for their assistance during the experimental process.

References

[1] Sommariva A, Gori L, Chizzolini B, Pianorsi M. The economics of moon mining. Acta Astronaut 2020;170:712-8.

[2] Han WB, Zhou Y, Cai LX, Zhou C, Ding LY.Physical, mechanical and thermal properties of vacuum sintered HUST-1 lunar regolith simulant. Int J Min Sci Technol 2024; 34(9):1243-57.

[3] Zhou C, Gao YY, Zhou Y, She W, Shi YS, Ding LY, Miao CW. Properties and characteristics of regolith-based materials for extraterrestrial construction. Engineering 2024;37:159-81.

[4] Zhou C, Li S, Chen Z, Zhou Y, Ding LY. Digital image correlation and high-speed photography for deformation characterization of vacuum-sintered lunar regolith simulants. Eng Fract Mech 2025;326:111367.

[5] Chen P, Zhang L, Hu Z, Sun H, Jiang CG, Liu K, Yan CZ, Shi YS. Differences in forming mechanisms and mechanical properties between LPBF and DED processed highland gabbro lunar soil simulants. Virtual Phys Prototy 2025; 20 (1):e2542501.

[6] Iantaffi C, Leung CLA, Maddison G, Bele E, Hocine S, Snell R, Rack A, Meisnar M, Rohr T, Todd I, Lee PD. Laser additive manufacturing of lunar regolith simulant: New insights from in situ synchrotron X-ray imaging. Addit Manuf 2025;101:104711.

[7] Iantaffi C, Leung CLA, Ruckh E, Hocine S, Rack A, Lee PD. Real-time synchrotron X- ray lmaging of laser additive manufactured lunar Regolith simulant. Acta Astronaut 2025;233:218-22.

[8] Shen TR, Yao W, Quan XJ. In-situ visualization of powder wrapping behavior in millimeter-scale-beam lunar regolith powder bed fusion. Powder Technol 2023;425:118552.

[9] Ranjbar N, Khademzadeh S, Bayat M. Laser-based directed energy deposition with mullite: a necessary step for lunar regolith printing. Mater Des 2025;258:114605.

[10] Sun WC, Dang F, Zhou Y, Wen SF, Zhou C, Shi YS, Ding LY. Additive manufacturing of lunar regolith: a review. Addit Manuf Front 2025; 4(3):200225.

[11] Tomilina T, Kim A, Lisov D, Lysenko A. Porosity and compressive strength of test samples produced by SLM using rock gabbro-diabase based powder as a lunar regolith simulant. Acta Astronaut 2024;215:493-5.

[12] Gerdes N, Fokken LG, Linke S, Kaierle S, Suttmann O, Hermsdorf J, Stoll E, Trentlage C. Selective Laser Melting for processing of regolith in support of a lunar base. J Laser Appl 2018; 30(3):032018.

[13] Kim AA, Lysenko AM, Tomilina TM. A study of the properties of samples from a lunar regolith simulant produced by selective laser melting. Cosm Res 2024; 62 (5):510-8.

[14] Wang R, Qiao GF, Song GP. Additive manufacturing by laser powder bed fusion and thermal post-treatment of the lunar-regolith-based glass-ceramics for in situ resource utilization. Constr Build Mater 2023;392:132051.

[15] Liu YW, Zhang X, Wang C, Gu JP, Wang QG, Chen X, Yao W. Forming and densification of lunar regolith simulant based on millimeter-scale energy beam melting. J Mater Res Technol 2024;30:2653-65.

[16] Zhang W, Qiu Z, Liu WR, Zhang BL, Guo WY. Study on the AE characteristics and energy evolution mechanism of sandstone with different aspect ratios under biaxial compression. Rock Mech Rock Eng 2024; 57(11):9019-34.

[17] Gao M, Li QQ, Yang Y. Study on the energy evolution characteristics of coal-rock combined bodies under uniaxial compression. Results Eng 2025;26:105361.

[18] Chen YA, Xu J, Peng SJ, Zhang QW, Chen CC.Strain localisation and seepage characteristics of rock under triaxial compression by 3D digital image correlation. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2022;152:105064.

[19] Yang LY, Zhang F, You JX, Man DH, Gao J, Liu W.Mechanical behaviour and spatial fracture characteristics of weakly filled granite with different diameters under uniaxial loading revealed by 3D DIC and AE monitoring. Bull Eng Geol Environ 2024; 83(6):217.

[20] Yuan Y, Xu T, Heap MJ, Meredith PG, Yang TH, Zhou GL. A three-dimensional mesoscale model for progressive time-dependent deformation and fracturing of brittle rock with application to slope stability. Comput Geotech 2021;135:104160.

[21] Tang Y, Okubo S, Xu J, Peng SJ.Progressive failure behaviors and crack evolution of rocks under triaxial compression by 3D digital image correlation. Eng Geol 2019;249:172-85.

[22] Isachenkov M, Chugunov S, Landsman Z, Akhatov I, Metke A, Tikhonov A. Characterization of novel lunar highland and mare simulants for ISRU research applications. Icarus 2022;376:114873.

[23] Sun XM, Zhang R, Li XJ, Zou M, Wang C, Chen L. JLU-H: A novel lunar highland regolith simulant for use in large-scale engineering experiments. Planet Space Sci 2022;221:105562.

[24] Zhang H, Zhang X, Zhang G, Dong KQ, Deng XJ, Gao XS, Yang YD, Xiao Y, Bai X, Liang KX, Liu YW, Ma WB, Zhao SF, Zhang C, Zhang XJ, Song J, Yao W, Chen H, Wang WH, Zou ZG, Yang MF.Size, morphology, and composition of lunar samples returned by Chang’E-5 mission. Sci China Phys Mech 2022;65:1-8.

[25] Qian YQ, Xiao L, Yin S, Zhang M, Zhao SY, Pang Y, Wang J, Wang GX, Head JW.The regolith properties of the Chang’e-5 landing region and the ground drilling experiments using lunar regolith simulants. Icarus 2020;337:113508.

[26] Zhang X, He Q, Li XY, Gao YY, Shen TR, Wang C, Song J, Zhao SF, Yao W, Yang MF. Photothermal melting and forming technology of lunar regolith in high-vacuum environments. J Space Sci Exp 2025; 2(2):48-53.

[27] Liu YW, Zhang X, Chen X, Wang C, Yu YL, Jia Y, Yao W.Boosting the mechanical and thermal properties of CUG-1A lunar regolith simulant by spark plasma sintering. Crystals 2024; 14(12):22.

[28] Lv JK.Development of CE-5 Lunar Regolith Simulant and Experimental Study on Its Mechanical Properties. 2024; Dalian University of Technology.

[29] Li CL, Hu H, Yang MF, Pei ZY, Zhou Q, Ren X, Liu B, Liu DW, Zeng XG, Zhang GL, Zhang HB, Liu JJ, Wang Q, Deng XJ, Xiao CJ, Yao YG, Xue DS, Zuo W, Su Y, Wen WB, Ouyang ZY.Characteristics of the lunar samples returned by the Chang’E-5 mission. Natl Sci Rev 2021; 9(2):nwab188.

[30] Guillen D, Wahlquist S, Ali A. Critical review of LPBF metal print defects detection: roles of selective sensing technology. Appl Sci 2024; 14 (15):6718.

[31] Ullah A, Shah M, Ali Z, Asami K, Rehman AU, Emmelmann C. Additive manufacturing of ceramics via the laser powder bed fusion process. Int J Appl Ceram Technol 2025; 22(3):e15087.

[32] Rehman AU, Ullah A, Liu TT, Rehman RU, Salamci MU.Additive manufacturing of Al 2O3 ceramics with MgO/SiC contents by laser powder bed fusion process. Front Chem 2023;11:1034473.

[33] Kotadia HR, Gibbons G, Das A, Howes PD. A review of laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys: microstructure and properties. Addit Manuf 2021;46:102155.

[34] Zhang JX, Li M, Liu Z, Zhou N. Fractal characteristics of crushed particles of coal gangue under compaction. Powder Technol 2017;305:12-8.

[35] Gao RB, Wu F, Li CB, Ye C, He Q, Xie HP. Damage evolution and failure modes of coal-concrete composites with varying height ratios under cyclic loading. Int J Min Sci Technol 2025; 35(7):1093-106.

[36] Gong FQ, Zhang PL, Luo S, Li JC, Huang D. Theoretical damage characterisation and damage evolution process of intact rocks based on linear energy dissipation law under uniaxial compression. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 2021;146:104858.

[37] Wang KZ, Zhang C, Gao YH, Chen HJ, Xie T. Influence of prefabricated fissure combinations on strength and failure characteristics of rock-like specimens under uniaxial compression. Int J Geomech 2023; 23(2):04022279.

[38] Gao HR, Jin X, Yang JZ, Zhang DC, Zhang SP, Zhang FQ, Chen HS. Porous structure and compressive failure mechanism of additively manufactured cubic-lattice tantalum scaffolds. Mater Today Adv 2021;12:100183.

[39] Iskander M, Shrive N. The effect of the shape and size of initial flaws on crack propagation in uniaxially compressed linear brittle materials. Theor Appl Fract Mech 2020;109:102742.

[40] Dzogbewu TC, de Beer DJ. Direct laser powder bed fusion of ceramics. Results Mater 2025;25:100664.

[41] Liu ZW, Ma CB, Chang ZX, Yan P, Li FZ. Advances in crack formation mechanism and inhibition strategy for ceramic additive manufacturing. J Eur Ceram Soc 2023; 43(12):5078-98.

[42] Bera T, Mohanty S. A review on residual stress in metal additive manufacturing. 3D Print Addit Manuf 2024; 11(4):1462-70.

[43] Khan HM, Karabulut Y, Kitay O, Kaynak Y, Jawahir IS. Influence of the post-processing operations on surface integrity of metal components produced by laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing: A review. Mach Sci Technol 2020; 25(1):118-76.

[44] Wawrzyniak N, Provencher PR, Brochu M, Brochu M.Tensile properties of SS316L produced by LPBF: influence of specimen dimensions and surface condition. Mater Charact 2023;203:113117.

[45] Tan T, Zhang CY, Zhao YL, Li XS. Mechanical behavior and damage constitutive model of sandstone under hydro-mechanical (H-M) coupling. Int J Min Sci Technol 2024; 34(6):837-53.