Fluid Dynamics and Infrared Stealth of Marine IRS Devices: A Review

Abstract

Infrared suppression (IRS) devices for naval ships play a crucial role in reducing the infrared radiation signature of high-temperature exhaust, thereby enhancing the survivability of ships against infrared-guided weapons. This paper provides a comprehensive review of recent advancements in the design and optimization of IRS devices. The primary research problem of the devices is the need to effectively suppress infrared radiation from ship exhaust gases, which are the main targets of infrared-guided missiles. To achieve this, the paper analyzes the infrared characteristics of exhaust systems from the perspectives of fluid dynamics, radiation sources, and radiation transmission, with a detailed explanation of the associated physical mechanisms and computational methods. The working principles and structural features of commonly used IRS devices, such as eductor/diffuser (E/D) devices and DRES-Ball devices, are introduced, with a focus on the design and optimization of key components, including nozzles, mixing diffusers, and optical blocking obstacles. Advanced suppression technologies, such as water injection and aerosol particle dispersion, are also discussed as auxiliary methods to enhance the infrared stealth capabilities. The review highlights that the advanced cooling mechanisms and optical property modifications can significantly reduce the infrared radiation of exhaust plumes. Furthermore, the paper identifies several challenges and future research directions, including the performance impacts of multi-device coordinated operation, the development of intelligent adaptive control systems, and the pursuit of lightweight and modular designs to meet the high mobility requirements of modern naval ships. This review aims to provide theoretical support and technical guidance for the practical design of IRS devices, offering valuable insights for the development of next-generation infrared stealth technologies for naval vessels.

Keywords

exhaust system / fluid dynamics / infrared radiation / IRS device

References

[1] J. B. Jouffray, R. Blasiak, A. V. Norström, H. Österblom, and M. Nyström, “The Blue Acceleration: The Trajectory of Human Expansion Into the Ocean,” One Earth 2, no. 1 (2020): 43–54.

[2] R. Blasiak, J. B. Jouffray, A. Norström, C. Queiroz, C. C. Wabnitz, and H. Österblom, “The Ocean Decade as an Instrument of Peace,” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 64 (2023): 101319.

[3] R. D. Hudson, Infrared System Engineering (Wiley, 1969).

[4] S. Liaquat, N. M. Mahyuddin, and I. H. Naqvi, “An End-to-End Modular Framework for Radar Signal Processing: A Simulation-Based Tutorial,” IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine 39 (2024): 98–118.

[5] G. A. Rao and S. P. Mahulikar, “Integrated Review of Stealth Technology and its Role in Airpower,” Aeronautical Journal 106, no. 1066 (2002): 629–642.

[6] Z. Wang, Z. Wu, T. Wang, and B. Zhang, “Development of Infrared-Guided Missile Precision Detection Simulator,” Machines 9, no. 9 (2021): 198.

[7] C. Marcus, K. Andersson, and C. Åkerlind, “Balancing the Radar and Long Wavelength Infrared Signature Properties in Concept Analysis of Combat Aircraft–A Proof of Concept,” Aerospace Science and Technology 71 (2017): 733–741.

[8] AGM-114 Hellfire Missile Ultimate Guide: Capabilities, Variants, and Cost. The Defense Post (2024), https://thedefensepost.com/2021/03/22/agm-114-hellfire-missile.

[9] The Sidewinder Story-The Evolution of the AIM-9 Missile. Air Power Australia (2024), https://ausairpower.net/TE-Sidewinder-94.html.

[10] Norway Donates Hellfire Missiles and Night Vision Equipment to Ukraine. Army Recognition (2025), https://www.armyrecognition.com/news/army-news/2022/norway-donates-hellfire-missiles-and-night-vision-equipment-to-ukraine.

[11] Four Stealthy AGM-158C Long-Range Anti-Dhip Missiles Flew Together in “Historic” Test. The War Zone (2024), https://www.twz.com/air/four-stealthy-agm-158c-long-range-anti-ship-missiles-flew-together-in-historic-test.

[12] H. Liu, J. Wang, D. Guo, K. Shen, B. Chen, and J. Wu, “Design and Fabrication of High Performance InGaAs Near Infrared Photodetector,” Nanomaterials 13, no. 21 (2023): 2895.

[13] R. K. Bhan and V. Dhar, “Recent Infrared Detector Technologies, Applications, Trends and Development of HgCdTe Based Cooled Infrared Focal Plane Arrays and Their Characterization,” Opto-Electronics Review 27, no. 2 (2019): 174–193.

[14] D. Yuan, H. Zhang, X. Shu, et al., “Thermal Infrared Target Tracking: A Comprehensive Review,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement 73 (2024): 1–19.

[15] W. Li, Y. Zhu, and D. Zhao, “Missile Guidance With Assisted Deep Reinforcement Learning for Head-On Interception of Maneuvering Target,” Complex & Intelligent Systems 8, no. 2 (2022): 1205–1216.

[16] D. Hong and S. Park, “Avoiding Obstacles via Missile Real-Time Inference by Reinforcement Learning,” Applied Sciences 12, no. 9 (2022): 4142.

[17] S. Bagavathiappan, B. B. Lahiri, T. Saravanan, J. Philip, and T. Jayakumar, “Infrared Thermography for Condition Monitoring-A Review,” Infrared Physics & Technology 60 (2013): 35–55.

[18] P. S. Wei, H. H. Chiu, Y. C. Hsieh, et al., “Absorption Coefficient of Water Vapor Across Atmospheric Troposphere Layer,” Heliyon 5, no. 1 (2019): e01145.

[19] P. S. Wei, Y. C. Hsieh, H. H. Chiu, et al., “Absorption Coefficient of Carbon Dioxide Across Atmospheric Troposphere Layer,” Heliyon 4, no. 10 (2018): e00785.

[20] T. Elder and J. Strong, “The Infrared Transmission of Atmospheric Windows,” Journal of the Franklin Institute 255, no. 3 (1953): 189–208.

[21] S. P. Mahulikar, H. R. Sonawane, and G. Arvind Rao, “Infrared Signature Studies of Aerospace Vehicles,” Progress in Aerospace Sciences 43 (2007): 218–245.

[22] S. P. Mahulikar, S. K. Sane, U. N. Gaitonde, and A. G. Marathe, “Numerical Studies of Infrared Signature Levels of Complete Aircraft,” Aeronautical Journal 105, no. 1046 (2001): 185–192.

[23] N. Baranwal and S. P. Mahulikar, “Review of Infrared Signature Suppression Systems Using Optical Blocking Method,” Defence Technology 15, no. 3 (2019): 432–439.

[24] A. K. Maini and V. Agrawal, “Test System for Comprehensive Evaluation of Infrared-Guided Missiles,” IET Optoelectronics 6, no. 5 (2012): 255–262.

[25] F. Neele, “Two-Color Infrared Missile Warning Sensors,” Proceedings of SPIE 5787 (2005): 134–145.

[26] D. Kwan, M. Kesaria, E. A. Anyebe, and D. Huffaker, “Recent Trends in 8–14 μm Type-II Superlattice Infrared Detectors,” Infrared Physics & Technology 116 (2021): 103756.

[27] A. M. Birk and W. R. Davis, “Suppressing the Infrared Signatures of Marine Gas Turbines,” Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 111 (1989): 123–129.

[28] R. Hu, S. Zhou, Y. Li, D. Y. Lei, X. Luo, and C. W. Qiu, “Illusion Thermotics,” Advanced Materials 30, no. 22 (2018): 1707237.

[29] C. R. Ellin and P. F. Pucci, Model Tests of Multiple Nozzle Exhaust Gas Eductor Systems for Gas Turbine Powered Ships (Naval Postgraduate School, 1977).

[30] A. Mukherjee, V. Chandrakar, J. Ranjan Senapati, and S. K. Rout, “Thermo-Fluid Characteristics and Lock-On Range Efficiency of Infrared Suppression (IRS) Devices With Diathermic Funnels in the Presence of Surface Radiation: A Comparative Study,” Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A: Applications, In Press, https://doi.org/10.1080/10407782.2024.2343034.

[31] K. K. Choudhary, P. V. S. G. Kumar, A. V. S. N. Murty, “Infrared Suppression Technologies for Marine Platforms,” Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series C 103 (2022): 413–419.

[32] Ansys Inc (Release 2020 R1). Ansys Fluent Theory Guide (2020).

[33] Z. Yang, J. Zhang, and Y. Shan, “Effects of Forward-Flight Speed on Plume Flow and Infrared Radiation of IRS-Integrating Helicopter,” Chinese Journal of Aeronautics 35, no. 3 (2022): 155–168.

[34] Z. Yang, J. Zhang, and Y. Shan, “Research on the Influence of Integrated Infrared Suppressor Exhaust Angle on Exhaust Plume and Helicopter Infrared Radiation,” Aerospace Science and Technology 118 (2021): 107013.

[35] Z. Yang, J. Zhang, and Y. Shan, “Research on the Infrared Radiation Suppression of the High-Temperature Components of the Helicopter With an Integrated Infrared Suppressor,” Aerospace 10, no. 4 (2023): 351.

[36] M. Hilton, A. H. Lettington, and C. W. Wilson, “Gas Turbine Exhaust Emissions Monitoring Using Nonintrusive Infrared Spectroscopy,” Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 120 (1998): 514–518.

[37] P. Ehrenfreund and E. F. van Dishoeck, “The Search for Solid O₂ and N₂ With ISO,” Advances in Space Research 21 (1998): 15–20.

[38] D. K. Edwards, “Molecular Gas Band Radiation,” in Advances in Heat Transfer, eds. T. F. Irvine and J. P. Hartnett (Elsevier, 1976).

[39] J. Li, L. Bai, J. Bai, H. Shi, H. Li, and L. Guo, “A Discrete Spectral Contributions Based Statistical Narrow-Band Model for High-Temperature Combustion Systems,” Infrared Physics & Technology 129 (2023): 104564.

[40] J. R. Howell, M. P. Menguc, and R. Siegel, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer (CRC Press, 2010).

[41] J. M. Hartmann, R. Levi Di Leon, and J. Taine, “Line-by-Line and Narrow-Band Statistical Model Calculations for H₂O,” Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer 32, no. 2 (1984): 119–127.

[42] I. E. Gordon, L. S. Rothman, C. Hill, et al., “The HITRAN2016 Molecular Spectroscopic Database,” Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer 203 (2017): 3–69.

[43] L. S. Rothman, I. E. Gordon, R. J. Barber, et al., “Hitemp, the High-Temperature Molecular Spectroscopic Database,” Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer 111, no. 15 (2010): 2139–2150.

[44] S. Zheng, R. Sui, Y. Sun, Y. Yang, and Q. Lu, “A Review on the Applications of Non-Gray Gas Radiation Models in Multi-Dimensional Systems,” ES Energy & Environment 12, no. 2 (2021): 4–45.

[45] W. M. Elsasser, Heat Transfer by Infrared Radiation in the Atmosphere (Harvard University Press, 1942).

[46] C. B. Ludwig, W. Malkmus, J. E. Reardon, J. A. L. Thomson, and R. Goulard, Handbook of Infrared Radiation From Combustion Gases (NASA Special Publication, 1973).

[47] R. M. Goody, “A Statistical Model for Water-Vapour Absorption,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 78, no. 336 (1952): 638–640.

[48] W. Malkmus, “Random Lorentz Band Model With Exponential-Tailed S⁻¹ Line-Intensity Distribution Function*,” Journal of the Optical Society of America 57, no. 3 (1967): 323–329.

[49] W. L. Godson, “The Computation of Infrared Transmission by Atmospheric Water Vapor,” Journal of Meteorology 12, no. 3 (1955): 272–284.

[50] S. S. Penner and R. Landshoff, “Quantitative Molecular Spectroscopy and Gas Emissivities,” Physics Today 13, no. 8 (1960): 38–40.

[51] D. K. Edwards and W. A. Menard, “Comparison of Models for Correlation of Total Band Absorption,” Applied Optics 3, no. 5 (1964): 621–625.

[52] Y. A. Popov, “The Curtis-Godson Approximation for Calculating the Radiation of a Nonisothermal Gas,” Journal of Engineering Physics 32, no. 4 (1977): 476–478.

[53] S. Kato, T. P. Ackerman, J. H. Mather, and E. E. Clothiaux, “The K-Distribution Method and Correlated-K Approximation for a Shortwave Radiative Transfer Model,” Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer 62, no. 1 (1999): 109–121.

[54] G. Krishnamoorthy, M. Sami, S. Orsino, A. Perera, M. Shahnam, and E. D. Huckaby, “Radiation Modelling in Oxy-Fuel Combustion Scenarios,” International Journal of Computational Fluid Dynamics 24 (2010): 69–82.

[55] H. C. Hottel and A. F. Sarofim, “Radiative Transfer Landolt-Bornstein-Group Vi,” Astronomy and Astrophysics 142, no. 9 (1967): 42–44.

[56] W. Sun, Q. Gao, J. Zhang, F. Hu, and Y. Shan, “Aerosol Infrared Stealth Technology: Theory and Development of Infrared Suppression and Particle Dispersion in Aircraft Plume,” Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023): 101695.

[57] S. Chandrasekhar, Radiative Transfer (Dover Publications, 1960).

[58] Q. Niu, Z. He, and S. Dong, “IR Radiation Characteristics of Rocket Exhaust Plumes Under Varying Motor Operating Conditions,” Chinese Journal of Aeronautics 30, no. 3 (2017): 1101–1114.

[59] Q. Niu, D. Fu, S. Dong, and H. Tan, “A Simplified Model for Fast Estimating Infrared Thermal Radiation of Low-Altitude Under-Expanded Exhaust Plumes,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 136 (2019): 276–287.

[60] Q. Niu, X. Duan, X. Meng, Z. He, and S. Dong, “Numerical Analysis of Point-Source Infrared Radiation Phenomena of Rocket Exhaust Plumes at Low and Middle Altitudes,” Infrared Physics & Technology 99 (2019): 28–38.

[61] P. Yan, W. Gao, X. Meng, H. Wang, Q. Niu, and S. Dong, “A Numerical Study on the Influence of Multiple Nozzles on the Infrared Radiation Signatures of Liquid Rocket Exhaust Plumes,” Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 61 (2024): 104835.

[62] T. Zhu, Y. Sun, Q. Niu, Z. He, and S. Dong, “Research on Flow and Radiation Similar Characteristics of Rocket Exhaust Plumes in Continuous-Flow Regime,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 229 (2024): 125663.

[63] F. C. Lockwood and N. G. Shah, “A New Radiation Solution Method for Incorporation in General Combustion Prediction Procedures,” Symposium (International) on Combustion 18 (1981): 1405–1414.

[64] W. Cheng, Z. Wang, L. Zhou, X. Sun, and J. Shi, “Influences of Shield Ratio on the Infrared Signature of Serpentine Nozzle,” Aerospace Science and Technology 71 (2017): 299–311.

[65] W. Cheng, Z. Wang, L. Zhou, J. Shi, and X. Sun, “Infrared Signature of Serpentine Nozzle With Engine Swirl,” Aerospace Science and Technology 86 (2019): 794–804.

[66] W. Cheng, Z. Wang, L. Zhou, X. Sun, and J. Shi, “Investigation of Infrared Signature of Serpentine Nozzle for Turbofan,” Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 33, no. 1 (2019): 170–178.

[67] J. Xu, L. Zhou, J. Shi, Y. Meng, J. Shi, and Z. Wang, “Multi-Objective Optimization Design of Aerodynamic and Infrared Characteristics of Multi-Stream Serpentine Nozzle,” Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2707 (2024): 012080.

[68] J. Moreno, C. Casado, and J. Marugán, “Improved Discrete Ordinate Method for Accurate Simulation Radiation Transport Using Solar and Led Light Sources,” Chemical Engineering Science 205 (2019): 151–164.

[69] W. Wang, S. Li, Q. Zhang, and N. Wang, “Infrared Radiation Signature of Exhaust Plume From Solid Propellants With Different Energy Characteristics,” Chinese Journal of Aeronautics 26, no. 3 (2013): 594–600.

[70] M. V. Filipskii and S. T. Surzhikov, “Calculation of Radiation Fluxes to the Surface of a Space Vehicle With the Aid of a Discrete Ordinates Method,” Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics 80, no. 2 (2007): 284–291.

[71] M. V. Filipskii and S. T. Surzhikov, “Discrete Ordinates Method for Prediction of Radiative Heating of Space Vehicles,” in 38th AIAA Thermophysics Conference (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2005).

[72] D. Zhang, L. Bai, Y. Wang, Q. Lv, and T. Zhang, “An Improved Shdom Coupled With CFD for Simulating Infrared Radiation Signatures of Rocket Plumes,” Infrared Physics & Technology 122 (2022): 104054.

[73] C. Lin, Q. Eri, and B. Kong, “The Effect of the Round Jet Parameters on Infrared Radiation Characteristics,” Infrared Physics & Technology 123 (2022): 104157.

[74] W. Huang and H. Ji, “Effect of Emissivity and Reflectance on Infrared Radiation Signature of Turbofan Engine,” Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 31, no. 1 (2017): 39–47.

[75] J. Liu and H. Ji, “Investigation on Infrared Signature of Axisymmetric Vectoring Exhaust System With Infrared Suppressions,” Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer 32, no. 3 (2018): 627–636.

[76] L. Chen, Q. Yang, and J. Cui, “Numerical Simulation on the Infrared Radiation Characteristics of Ejector Nozzle Based on RMCM,” Applied Mechanics and Materials 138 (2012): 879–885.

[77] J. Lu, and Q. Wang, “Aircraft-Skin Infrared Radiation Characteristics Modeling and Analysis,” Chinese Journal of Aeronautics 22, no. 5 (2009): 493–497.

[78] W. Huang and H. Ji, “Effect of Environmental Radiation on the Long-Wave Infrared Signature of Cruise Aircraft,” Aerospace Science and Technology 56 (2016): 125–134.

[79] A. M. Birk and D. Vandam, “Marine Gas Turbine Infra-Red Signature Suppression: Aerothermal Design Considerations,” in Proceedings of the ASME 1989 International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1989).

[80] J. Thompson, D. Vaitekunas, and A. M. Birk, “IR Signature Suppression of Modern Naval Ships,” ASNE 21st Century Combatant Technology Symposium (American Society of Naval Engineers, 1998).

[81] D. A. Vaitekunas, “IR Susceptibility of Naval Ships Using ShipIR/NTCS,” Proceedings of SPIE 7662 (2010): 277–284.

[82] G. Besagni, N. Cristiani, L. Croci, G. R. Guédon, and F. Inzoli, “Computational Fluid-Dynamics Modelling of Supersonic Ejectors: Screening of Modelling Approaches, Comprehensive Validation and Assessment of Ejector Component Efficiencies,” Applied Thermal Engineering 186 (2021): 116431.

[83] B. M. Tashtoush, M. A. Al-Nimr, and M. A. Khasawneh, “A Comprehensive Review of Ejector Design, Performance, and Applications,” Applied Energy 240 (2019): 138–172.

[84] A. Kumar, S. K. Yadav, V. Kumar, and A. Kulkarni, “A Comprehensive Exploration of Ejector Design, Operational Factors, Performance Metrics, and Practical Applications,” Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering 46, no. 1 (2024): 39.

[85] S. M. V. Rao and G. Jagadeesh, “Observations on the Non-Mixed Length and Unsteady Shock Motion in a Two Dimensional Supersonic Ejector,” Physics of Fluids 26, no. 3 (2014): 036103.

[86] Y. Zou, H. Shi, B. Kong, J. Pan, and Y. Jiang, “Numerical Investigation of Air Entrainment and Wall Temperature of a Real-Scale Infrared Suppression Device With Slots of Gradient Height,” International Journal of Thermal Sciences 190 (2023): 108296.

[87] S. Zhou, The Study on the Plume Radiation and IRSS of a Marine Gas Turbine Exhaust System With Multi-Ring Injection Device (Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2001).

[88] J. Thompson, A. M. Birk, and M. Cunningham, “Design of Infrared Signature Suppressor for the Bell 205 (UH-1H) Helicopters, Part I: Aerothermal Design,” in Seventh CASI Propulsion Symposium (Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute, 1999).

[89] D. P. Mishra and S. K. Dash, “Maximum Air Suction Into a Louvered Funnel Through Optimum Design,” Journal of Ship Research 56, no. 1 (2012): 1–11.

[90] V. R. Ganguly and S. K. Dash, “Numerical Analysis of Air Entrainment and Exit Temperature of a Real Scale Conical Infrared Suppression (IRS) Device,” International Journal of Thermal Sciences 156 (2020): 106482.

[91] E. Gutmark, K. C. Schadow, T. P. Parr, D. M. Hanson-Parr, and K. J. Wilson, “Noncircular Jets in Combustion Systems,” Experiments in Fluids 7 (1989): 248–258.

[92] J. Mi, G. J. Nathan, and R. E. Luxton, “Centreline Mixing Characteristics of Jets From Nine Differently Shaped Nozzles,” Experiments in Fluids 28, no. 1 (2000): 93–94.

[93] B. Gu, S. W. Baek, H. Jegal, S. M. Choi, and W. C. Kim, “Infrared Signature Characteristic of a Microturbine Engine Exhaust Plume,” Infrared Physics & Technology 86 (2017): 11–22.

[94] A. K. Barik, S. K. Dash, and A. Guha, “Entrainment of Air into an Infrared Suppression (IRS) Device Using Circular and Non-Circular Multiple Nozzles,” Computers & Fluids 114 (2015): 26–38.

[95] T. H. Frost, “Practical Bypass Mixing Systems for Fan Jet Aero Engines,” Aeronautical Quarterly 17, no. 2 (1966): 141–160.

[96] W. Presz and B. Morin, “Forced Mixer Lobes in Ejector Designs,” 22nd Joint Propulsion Conference (AIAA) (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1986).

[97] D. C. McCormick and J. C. Bennett, “Vortical and Turbulent Structure of a Lobed Mixer Free Shear Layer,” AIAA JOURNAL 32, no. 9 (1994): 1852–1859.

[98] M. J. Werle, W. Presz, and R. W. Paterson, “Flow Structure in a Periodic Axial Vortex Array,” in 25th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1986).

[99] T. A. Manning, Experimental Studies of Mixing Flows With Streamwise Vorticity (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1991).

[100] J. K. Elliott, T. A. Manning, Y. J. Qiu, E. M. Greitzer, C. S. Tan, and T. G. Tillman, “Computational and Experimental Studies of Flow in Multi-Lobed Mixers,” Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit (1992).

[101] H. Hui, T. Saga, and T. Kobayashi, “Dual-Plane Stereoscopic PIV Measurements in a Lobed Jet Mixing Flow,” in 43rd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2005).

[102] R. W. Paterson, “Turbofan Mixer Nozzle Flow Field-A Benchmark Experimental Study,” Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 106 (1984): 692–698.

[103] Y. Xie and Y. Liu, “Numerical Investigation of Lobe Spacing Ratio on Performance of Forced Mixer Nozzle,” Heat Transfer—Asian Research 40, no. 7 (2011): 593–607.

[104] Y. Xie and Y. H. Liu, “Numerical Investigation of Lobe Length on Performance of Lobed Forced Mixer Nozzle,” in The Proceedings of 2010 Asia-Pacific International Symposium on Aerospace Technology, 1032–1037 (Northwestern Polytechnical University Press, 2010).

[105] A. Kuchar and R. Chamberlin, “Scale Model Performance Test Investigation of Mixed Flow Exhaust Systems for an Energy Efficient Engine (E3) Propulsion System,” 18th Aerospace Sciences Meeting (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1983).

[106] H. Kozlowski and G. Kraft, “Experimental Evaluation of Exhaust Mixers for an Energy Efficient Engine,” in 16th Joint Propulsion Conference (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1980).

[107] M. N. O'Sullivan, J. K. Krasnodebski, I. A. Waitz, E. M. Greitzer, C. S. Tan, and W. N. Dawes, “Computational Study of Viscous Effects on Lobed Mixer Flow Features and Performance,” Journal of Propulsion and Power 12, no. 3 (1996): 449–456.

[108] Y. H. Liu, C. Fan, Y. Xie, W. R. Shao, and L. Xu, “Effect of Lobe Numbers on the Performance of a Lobed Mixer in the Forced Mixing Exhaust System,” Journal of Aerospace Power 25, no. 8 (2010): 1683–1689.

[109] Y. Song, Research on Multi-Objective Optimization and Design of the Lobed Mixer Exhaust System (University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2020).

[110] S. A. Skebe, R. W. Paterson, and T. J. Barber, “Experimental Investigation of Three-Dimensional Forced Mixer Lobe Flow Field,” in 1st National Fluid Dynamics Conference (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1988).

[111] S. C. M. Yu, T. H. Yip, and C. Y. Liu, “Mixing Characteristics of Forced Mixers With Scalloped Lobes,” Journal of Propulsion and Power 13, no. 2 (1997): 305–311.

[112] S. C. M. Yu, “Some Flow Characteristics of Lobed Forced Mixers at Higher Velocity Ratios,” Experiments in Fluids 20, no. 3 (1996): 234–237.

[113] Z. Sheng, P. Huang, T. Zhao, and J. Ji, “Configurations of Lobed Nozzles for High Mixing Effectiveness,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 91 (2015): 671–683.

[114] Z. Sheng, L. Zhang, Y. Dan, and Y. Wang, “Configuration of the Lobed Nozzle in an Ejector Mixer for Extreme Mixing Efficiency,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 183 (2022): 122102.

[115] Z. Sheng, “Jet Mixing of Lobed Nozzles With Spoilers Located at Lobe Peaks,” Applied Thermal Engineering 119 (2017): 165–175.

[116] Y. L. Ding, Y. H. Liu, Y. Xie, W. R. Shao, and F. Wu, “Effect of Serrated Cut at Trailing Edge on Performance of Lobed Mixer in Forced Mixing Exhaust System,” Journal of Aerospace Power 27, no. 10 (2012): 2236–2242.

[117] Y. H. Liu, S. P. Zhang, X. Yang, Y. Xie, and F. Wu, “Effects of Cut Angles at Trailing Edge of Lobe on Aerothermodynamic Performance of Forced Mixing Exhaust System in Turbofan Engine,” Journal of Propulsion Technology 34, no. 6 (2013): 734–740.

[118] P. Singh, S. Singh, and V. Seshadri, “Studies on Stepped Air Ejector Diffusers Incorporating Heat Transfer Effects,” International Journal of Turbo & Jet-Engines 35, no. 3 (2018): 251–263.

[119] L. Singh, S. Singh, and S. Sinha, “Effect of Standoff Distance and Area Ratio on the Performance of Circular Exhaust Ejector Using Computational Fluid Dynamics,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering 232 (2018): 2821–2832.

[120] V. Chandrakar and J. R. Senapati, “Numerical Investigation of Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics of a Full-Scale Infrared Suppression Device With Cylindrical Funnels,” International Journal of Thermal Sciences 153 (2020): 106355.

[121] Q. Chen and A. M. Birk, “Experimental Study of Oblong Exhaust Ejectors With Multi-Ring Oblong Entraining Diffusers,” in Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2008: Power for Land, Sea and Air, 11–21 (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2008).

[122] A. Maqsood and A. M. Birk, “Wall Pressure and Temperature Distribution in Bent Oblong Exhaust Ejectors,” Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2017: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2017).

[123] Q. Chen and A. M. Birk, “Performance of a Round Ejector With 22.5° Bent Entraining Diffuser,” in Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2010: Power for Land, Sea and Air (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2010).

[124] A. K. Barik, S. K. Dash, and A. Guha, “New Correlation for Prediction of Air Entrainment Into an Infrared Suppression (IRS) Device,” Applied Ocean Research 47 (2014): 303–312.

[125] D. P. Mishra and S. K. Dash, “Prediction of Entrance Length and Mass Suction Rate for a Cylindrical Sucking Funnel,” International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids 63, no. 6 (2010): 681–700.

[126] A. Mukherjee, V. Chandrakar, and J. R. Senapati, “Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer With Surface Radiation Characteristics of a Real-Scale Infrared Suppression Device With Conical Funnels,” International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 123 (2021): 105208.

[127] A. Mukherjee, V. Chadrakar, and J. R. Senapati, “Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics of the Full-Scale Infrared Suppression Device With the Louvered Conical Funnels Considering Surface Radiation: A Three-Dimensional Numerical Analysis,” ASME Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 145, no. 6 (2023): 062801.

[128] A. Mohanty, S. K. Dash, and S. Roy, “Natural Convection Cooling of an Infrared Suppression (IRS) Device With Cylindrical Funnels,” International Journal of Thermal Sciences 141 (2019): 103–113.

[129] A. Mohanty, S. K. Senapati, and S. K. Dash, “Natural Convection Cooling of an Infrared Suppression Device (IRS) With Conical Funnels-A Computational Approach,” International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 118 (2020): 104891.

[130] M. K. Dash, R. C. Mishra, A. K. Barik, and R. K. Mallik, “Numerical Investigation of Buoyancy-Induced Thermo-Fluid Characteristics of Different Types of Infrared Suppression (IRS) Devices,” International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 138 (2022): 106388.

[131] M. K. Dash and A. K. Barik, “A Computational Study on Air-Entrainment and Pressure Distribution for Natural Convection Cooling of a Hybrid IRS Device,” International Journal of Thermal Sciences 187 (2023): 108196.

[132] D. P. Mishra and S. K. Dash, “Numerical Investigation of Air Suction Through the Louvers of a Funnel Due to High Velocity Air Jet,” Computers & Fluids 39, no. 9 (2010): 1597–1608.

[133] A. Mukherjee, V. Chandrakar, and J. R. Senapati, “Thermo-Fluid Characteristics of an IRS System With Louvered Cylindrical Diathermic Funnels Considering Surface Radiation: A Three-Dimensional Numerical Exercise,” International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 135 (2022): 106132.

[134] V. R. Ganguly and S. K. Dash, “Comparison between a Conventional and a New IRS Device in Terms of Air Entrainment: An Experimental and Numerical Analysis,” Journal of Ship Research 64, no. 4 (2020): 357–371.

[135] V. R. Ganguly and S. K. Dash, “Experimental and Numerical Study of Air Entrainment Into a Louvered Conical IRS Device and Comparison With Existing IRS Devices,” International Journal of Thermal Sciences 141 (2019): 114–132.

[136] Y. Zou, H. Shi, Y. Jiang, and B. Kong, “Numerical Study of an Infrared Suppression (IRS) Device With Cooling Hole Configuration on the Mixing Tube,” Applied Thermal Engineering 236 (2024): 121866.

[137] A. M. Birk and D. Vandam, “Marine Gas Turbine Infrared Signature Suppression: Aero Thermal Design Considerations,” in Proceedings of the ASME 1989 International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1989).

[138] R. C. Mishra, A. K. Barik, and R. K. Mallik, “Numerical Investigation of Air Entrainment and Outlet Temperature Characteristics of an Infrared Suppression Device With Obstacles,” Applied Thermal Engineering 257 (2024): 124225.

[139] W. Steyer, C. M. Kieffer, J. M. Jasany, and J. Hoffman, Method and Apparatus for Suppressing Infrared Signatures (U.S. Patent US6988674 (B2), 2006).

[140] J. Sokhey and B. Kornegay, Techniques to Reduce Infrared Detection of a Gas Turbine Engine (U.S. Patent US8776527 (B1), 2014).

[141] Y. Shan and J. Zhang, “Numerical Investigation of Flow Mixture Enhancement and Infrared Radiation Shield by Lobed Forced Mixer,” Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009): 3687–3695.

[142] M. Chen, H. Chen, and H. Zhang, “Central Cone Film Cooling Scheme of Turbofan Engine Based on Multi-Fidelity Simulation,” Applied Thermal Engineering 253 (2024): 123811.

[143] Y. Shan, J. Zhang, and C. Pan, “Numerical and Experimental Investigation of Infrared Radiation Characteristics of a Turbofan Engine Exhaust System With Film Cooling Central Body,” Aerospace Science and Technology 28, no. 1 (2013): 281–288.

[144] C. Bettini and C. Cravero, “Multidisciplinary Analysis of a Complete Infrared Suppression System,” ASME Turbo Expo 2007: Power for Land, Sea and Air 6 (2007): 1365–1370.

[145] J. W. Mitchell and A. L. London, Design Parameters for Subsonic Air-Air Ejectors (Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, 1958, Technical Report 40).

[146] N. H. G. Mueller, “Water Jet Pump,” Journal of the Hydraulics Division 90, no. 3 (1964): 83–113.

[147] R. Silvester and N. H. G. Mueller, “Design Data for the Liquid-Liquid Jet Pump,” Journal of Hydraulic Research 6, no. 2 (1968): 129–162.

[148] Y. R. Reddy and S. Kar, “Theory and Performance of Water Jet Pump,” Journal of the Hydraulics Division 94, no. 5 (1968): 1261–1282.

[149] S. T. Bonnington and A. L. King, Jet Pumps and Ejectors-A State of the Art Review and Bibliography (British Hydromechanics Research Association, Fluid Engineering, 1972).

[150] B. Vyas and S. Kar, “Study of Entrainment and Mixing Process for an Air to Air Jet Ejector,” Symposium on Jet Pumps and Ejectors and Gas Lift Techniques (British Hydromechanics Research Association, 1975).

[151] S. Sen, Studies on Flow Characteristics of a Stepped Conical Diffuser With Passive Suction (Indian Institute of Technology, 2008).

[152] L. Singh, S. Singh, and S. Sinha, “Effect of Standoff Distance and Area Ratio on the Performance of Circular Exhaust Ejector Using Computational Fluid Dynamics,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering 232 (2018): 2821–2832.

[153] M. Xu, L. Cao, H. Luo, P. Hu, and Y. Wang, “Effect of Water Spray in Exhaust Passage of Steam Turbine on Flow Field of the Last Stage During Windage,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 161 (2020): 120296.

[154] L. Cao, H. Du, and H. Si, “Influence of Water Spray Parameters on Aerodynamic Characteristics and Temperature Drop Characteristics of Exhaust Passage in Steam Turbine,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 180 (2021): 121829.

[155] A. Lin, Q. Zheng, Y. Jiang, X. Lin, and H. Zhang, “Sensitivity of Air/Mist Non-Equilibrium Phase Transition Cooling to Transient Characteristics in a Compressor of Gas Turbine,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 137 (2019): 882–894.

[156] A. Lin, J. Zhou, H. Fawzy, H. Zhang, and Q. Zheng, “Evaluation of Mass Injection Cooling on Flow and Heat Transfer Characteristics for High-Temperature Inlet Air in a MIPCC Engine,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 135 (2019): 620–630.

[157] Z. Zhou, P. Sun, and Y. Bao, “Numerical Simulations of Thermal Environment of the Rocket Impingement Jet With Afterburning Under Different Water Spray Angles,” Aerospace Science and Technology 121 (2022): 107308.

[158] X. Meichao, S. Linsen, and X. Dakun, “Effect of Water Spray on Tip Leakage Flow in a Inlet Stage of High-Speed Compressor,” Aerospace Science and Technology 142 (2023): 108687.

[159] J. A. Guarnieril and P. G. Cizmas, “A Method for Reducing Jet Engine Thermal Signature,” International Journal of Turbo and Jet Engines 25, no. 1 (2008): 1–12.

[160] C. Dymarski and M. Narewski, “Simplified Method of Water Cooled Exhaust System Design and Performance Assessment,” Journal of Polish CIMEEAC 11, no. 1 (2016): 1–7.

[161] Y. L. Ma, Y. Jiang, W. C. Wang, J. G. Hao, and G. L. Zhao, “Research on Infrared Radiation Suppression of Rocket Motor Exhaust Plume With Water Injection,” Transactions of Beijing Institute of Technology 31 (2011): 776–780.

[162] Z. Sun, Z. Wang, Z. Chen, Z. Liu, M. Liu, and S. Zhang, “Analysis of Infrared Radiation Intensity by Water-Mist Spraying in Ship Exhaust System,” Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2112, no. 1 (2021): 012019.

[163] J. Choi, S. Moon, H. Kim, and S. Choi, “Effectiveness of Water Spray in Infrared Signature Suppression of Engine Plumes,” Infrared Physics & Technology 135 (2023): 104959.

[164] W. Gong, Research on the Test Equipments of Mixed Infrared Suppressor and Experiment (Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 2014).

[165] T. Wang, Study of Diesel Water Spraying Acoustical Exhaust System (Harbin Engineering University, 2016).

[166] R. D. Harris, K. O'Dell, G. G. Pippin, S. J. Young, and L. R. Martin, Final Report: Study of Radiative Scattering Concept of Plume Infrared Radiation Obsuration (Utah State University and Chomistry and Physics Laboratory of the Aerospace Corporation, 1977).

[167] S. A. Weisrose, R. Davidson, M. Lindner, S. Jacobson, and J. Wallace, “Aerosol Effects on Jet-Engine IR radiation,” in 32nd Annual International Technical Symposium on Optical and Optoelectronic Applied Science and Engineering (International Society for Optics and Photonics, 1988).

[168] S. Jacobson, S. Weisrose, M. Lindner, et al., “IR Group Activities at the Israel Aircraft Industries,” 31st Annual Technical Symposium on Optical and Optoelectronic Applied Sciences and Engineering, (San Diego, United State, 1987).

[169] Y. R. Lee, J. W. Lee, C. M. Shin, J. W. Kim, and R. S. Myong, “Particle Layer Effects on Flowfield and Infrared Characteristics of Aircraft Exhaust Plume,” Journal of Aircraft 59, no. 5 (2022): 1320–1336.

[170] J. Zhang, Research on IR Suppressant of Hot Exhaust With the Spherical Particles (Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2007).

[171] X. Gao, Investigation on the Infrared Radiation and Radar Scattering Characteristics of Aircraft and Engine (Northwestern Ploytechnical University, 2016).

[172] C. Song, M. Cheng, B. Kong, Z. Zeng, N. Yuan, and H. Shi, “Perforated Plate Ventilation System and Dynamics of Infectious Respiratory Particle Transmission,” International Journal of Mechanical System Dynamics 4, no. 4 (2024): 497–514.

[173] F. Hu, W. Sun, J. Zhang, and Y. Shan, “Large Eddy Simulation of Discrete Particles Suppressing Infrared Radiation From Thermal Jets,” Journal of Central South University (Science Technology) 54, no. 4 (2023): 1576–1591.

[174] J. Zhang, H. Chang, and H. Wang, “Numerical Simulation on Infrared Radiation Suppressant of Hot Exhaust With the Spherical Particles,” Journal of Aerospace Power 24, no. 6 (2009): 1211–1218.

[175] J. Zhang, H. Chang, X. Chen, and Y. Zhu, “Experiment on Infrared Suppression Characteristics of Thermojet With Powder Aerosol,” Journal of Propulsion Technology 27, no. 4 (2006): 326–330.

[176] W. Sun, F. Hu, J. Zhang, and Y. Shan, “Distribution Characteristics of Discrete Particles in Hot Jet in Supersonic Flight,” Journal of Propulsion Technology 44, no. 3 (2023): 106–114.

[177] E. F. Camacho and C. Bordons, Model Predictive Control (Springer, 2007).

[178] Y. LeCun, Y. Bengio, and G. Hinton, “Deep Learning,” Nature 521 (2015): 436–444.

[179] C. Soutis, “Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics in Aircraft Construction,” Materials Science and Engineering: A 412 (2005): 171–176.

[180] R. Naslain, “Design, Preparation and Properties of Non-Oxide CMCS for Application in Engines and Nuclear Reactors: An Overview,” Composites Science and Technology 64 (2004): 155–170.

[181] S. Murata, E. Yoshida, A. Kamimura, H. Kurokawa, K. Tomita, and S. Kokaji, “M-TRAN: Self-Reconfigurable Modular Robotic System,” IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics 7, no. 4 (2002): 431–441.

[182] R. M. Lawson, R. G. Ogden, and R. Bergin, “Application of Modular Construction in High-Rise Buildings,” Journal of Architectural Engineering 18, no. 2 (2012): 148–154.

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

2025 The Author(s). International Journal of Mechanical System Dynamics published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Nanjing University of Science and Technology.