Objectification of Women in Japan and Its Effects on Their Well-Being

i

This article has been updated. A Correction to this article was published on .

i

The Original Article was published on

i

The Original Article was published on

i

This article has been updated

i

This article was retracted on

i

This article has been updated

Abstract

Sexual objectification causes women to view themselves as objects, a phenomenon known as self-objectification. While empirical studies on self-objectification have primarily focused on women in Western contexts, comprehensive investigations within the Japanese context remain limited. This study aimed to address this gap by empirically testing objectification theory through survey research. Two studies were conducted: Study 1 targeted college-aged women, and Study 2 focused on women in their twenties, with participants recruited via crowdsourcing. In both studies, regression analyses revealed significant paths from sexual objectification to self-objectification in interpersonal contexts, supporting the hypothesis that experiences of sexual objectification promote self-objectification. Subsequent path analyses further demonstrated that self-objectification was positively associated with disordered eating tendencies in both studies. Additionally, the indirect effect of self-objectification on disordered eating-mediated by body shame-was observed. These findings underscore the need to further develop objectification theory in Japan, particularly to shift societal awareness regarding women’s bodies and to combat inappropriate and unwanted objectification of Japanese women.

Keywords

objectification of women / self-objectification / psychological well-being / sexism / self-esteem / misogynism / body shame

CHANGE HISTORY

A Correction to this paper has been published:
https://doi.org

The Retraction Note was updated to reflect reception of statements of disagreement from all authors.

This article has been retracted.Please see the Retraction Notice for more detail:
https://doi.org

References

[1] Burney, J., & Irwin, H. J. (2000). Shame and guilt in women with eating-disorder symptomatology. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 51-61.

[2] Calogero, R. M. (2004). A test of objectification theory: The effect of the male gaze on appearance concerns in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28(1), 16-21.

[3] Daubenmier, J. J. (2005). The relationship of yoga, body awareness, and body responsiveness to self-objectification and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 207-219.

[4] Eguchi, S. (2006). Sexual objectification and ethics of sex. Contemporary Society, 9, 135-150. http://repo.kyoto-wu.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/11173/380/1/0130_009_008.pdf

[5] Eguchi, S. (2019). Sexual objectification revisited. Contemporary Society, 21, 101-114. http://repo.kyoto-wu.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/11173/2840/1/0130_021_007.pdf

[6] Fredrickson, B. L., Hendler, L. M., Nilsen, S., O’Barr, J. F., & Roberts, T.-A. (2011). Bringing back the body: A retrospective on the development of objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(4), 689-696.

[7] Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T.-A. (1997). Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women’s Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173-206.

[8] Fredrickson, B. L., Roberts, T.-A., Noll, S. M., Quinn, D. M., & Twenge, J. M. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 269-284.

[9] Harrison, K., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2003). Women’s sport media, self-objectification, and mental health in black and white adolescent females. Journal of Communication, 53(2), 216-232.

[10] Hart, E. A., Leary, M. R., & Rejeski, W. J. (1989). The measurement of social physique anxiety. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 11(1), 94-104.

[11] Japan Broadcasting Corporation. (2022). (Sexual violence survey . NHK Minna de Plus.

[12] Kozee, H. B., Tylka, T. L., Augustus-Horvath, C. L., & Denchik, A. (2007). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31(2), 176-189.

[13] McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The objectified body consciousness scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(2), 181-215.

[14] McCreery, G. (1998). (Redefined selves: Individuality and community in post-bubble Japan (Doctoral dissertation, University of London). ProQuest Dissertations & Theses.

[15] Ministry of Justice. (2021). (White Paper on Crime 2021 . https://hakusyo1.moj.go.jp/en/70/WHITE_PAPER_ON_CRIME2021.pdf.

[16] Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare. (2018). (Annual Health, (Labour and Welfare Report 2018 . https://www.mhlw.go.jp/wp/hakusyo/kousei/18-2/index_en.html.

[17] Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare. (2021). (Report on the Survey on Harassment in the Workplace in 2020 . https://www.mhlw.go.jp/stf/newpage_18384.html.

[18] Monro, F., & Huon, G. (2005). Media-portrayed idealized images, body shame, and appearance anxiety. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 38, 85-90.

[19] Moradi, B., & Huang, Y.-P. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(4), 377-398.

[20] Mukai, T., Crago, M., & Shisslak, C. M. (1994). Eating attitudes and weight preoccupation among female high school students in Japan. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(4), 677-688.

[21] National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry. (2019). (Current Status of Eating Disorders: Report on the Project to Establish and Operate the Eating Disorders Treatment and Support Center in 2008 . Department of Behavioral Medicine, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry . https://edcenter.ncnp.go.jp/pdf/report/business_report_h31.pdf.

[22] NHK (June 19, 2022). NHK Special: Seiboryoku-“Watashi” wo ubawarete (性暴力：“わたし”を奪われて). News Documentary Program. https://www.web.nhk/tv/an/special/pl/series-tep-2NY2QQLPM3/ep/46Y1KJ9RMY

[23] Ogai, Y. (2004). The relationship between two aspects of self-oriented perfectionism and self-evaluative depression: Using coping styles of uncontrollable events as mediators. The Japanese Journal of Psychology, 75(3), 199-206. https://doi.org/10.4992/jjpsy.75.199.

[24] Prichard, I., & Tiggemann, M. (2005). Objectification in fitness centers: Self-objectification, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating in aerobic instructors and aerobic participants. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 53 (1-2), 19-28.

[25] Quinn, D. M., Kallen, R. W., & Cathey, C. (2006). Body on my mind: The lingering effect of State Self-objectification. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 55 (11-12), 869-874.

[26] Roberts, T.-A., & Gettman, J. Y. (2004). Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self-objectification. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 51(1-2), 17-27.

[27] Sanchez, D. T., & Kiefer, A. K. (2007). Body concerns in and out of the bedroom: Implications for sexual pleasure and problems. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 808-820.

[28] Shields, S. A., Mallory, M. E., & Simon, A. (1989). The body awareness questionnaire: Reliability and validity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 53(4), 802-815. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5304_16.

[29] Shima, S., Shikano, T., Kitamura, T., & Asai, M. (1985). New self-rating scales for depression. Clinical Psychiatry, 27, 717-723.

[30] Sugihara, Y., & Katsurada, E. (2000). Gender-role personality traits in Japanese culture. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24(4), 309-318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb00213.x.

[31] Uggen, C., & Shinohara, C. (2009). Sexual harassment comes of age: A comparative analysis of the United States and Japan. The Sociological Quarterly, 50(2), 201-234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2009.01138.x.

[32] Yamaoka, A., & Yukawa, S. (2019). Development of Japanese versions of the Mind Wandering: Deliberate and Mind Wandering: Spontaneous Scales. Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 118-131.