Determining Maximum Allowable Concentrations of Selenium and Iron Nanoparticles in Hediste diversicolor as Sturgeon Live Feed

Abstract

This study aimed to determine the acute dietary toxicity and Maximum Allowable Concentration (MAC) of selenium (Se-NPs) and iron (Fe-NPs) nanoparticles for the ragworm (Hediste diversicolor). This worm is a critical live feed source in sturgeon aquaculture, directly influencing the health and growth of larvae and juveniles. However, the safe dietary levels of these nanoparticles for the ragworm itself, and consequently the risk of trophic transfer to sturgeon, remain unknown. Determining safe dietary levels of nanoparticles in this organism is therefore essential for ensuring the safety of the entire sturgeon feed chain. Worms were exposed to six concentrations (0, 100 μg/kg, 1, 10, 100 mg/kg, and 1 g/kg diet) of each nanoparticle for 96 h in three replicates. Throughout the experiment, aeration was provided, and worm behavior was monitored. Cumulative mortality was recorded at 24, 48, 72, and 96-h intervals. Data were recorded in Microsoft Office Excel 2019, and statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software (Version 26). Data were analyzed by Probit analysis with a 95% confidence level. The LC₁₀, LC₅₀, and LC₉₀ values for Se-NPs were calculated to be 291.2, 989.8, and 1690 mg/kg, respectively. For Fe-NPs, these values were 924.3, 3300, and 5700 mg/kg, respectively. Using a standard Safety Factor (SF) of 10, the calculated MAC are 98.98 mg/kg for Se-NPs and 330.0 mg/kg for Fe-NPs. This study establishes critical toxicity thresholds for Se-NPs and Fe-NPs in ragworm. The findings provide essential data for developing safe feeding protocols in sturgeon aquaculture, helping to prevent potential nanoparticle toxicity transfer through contaminated live feed and ensuring sustainable sturgeon production.

Keywords

Sturgeon / Live feed / Hediste diversicolor / Nanoparticles / Selenium / Iron / LC50 / Toxicity

References

[1] Searchinger T, Waite R, Hanson C, Ranganathan J, Dumas P, Matthews E, et al. Creating a Sustainable Food Future: A Menu of Solutions to Feed Nearly 10 Billion People by 2050 ; Final Report; World Resources Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2019; p. 556.

[2] Colgrave ML, Dominik S, Tobin AB, Stockmann R, Simon C, Howitt CA, et al. Perspectives on future protein production. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2021, 69, 15076-15083. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c05989

[3] Otsuka K, Fan S. Agricultural Development: New Perspectives in a Changing World ; International Food Policy Research Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2021. DOI: 10.2499/9780896293830

[4] Dudu A, Georgescu SE . Exploring the Multifaceted Potential of Endangered Sturgeon: Caviar, Meat and By-Product Benefits. Animals 2024, 14, 2425. DOI: 10.3390/ani14162425

[5] Maynard D, Flagg T, Mahnken C . A review of semi-culture strategies for enhancing the post-release survival of anadromous salmonids. Am. Fish. Soc. Symp. 1994, 15, 307-314. Available online: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://www.webapps.nwfsc.noaa.gov/assets/11/6716_12142010_101043_Maynard.et.al.1994a-rev.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwjPjIOox--VAxVfUqQEHYwQGdwQFnoECCEQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2IbTEETbVXUrY4BD2wW5PK (accessed on 27 July 2026).

[6] Sproul JT, Tominaga O . An economic review of the Japanese flounder stock enhancement project in Ishikari Bay, Hokkaido. Bull. Mar. Sci. 1992, 50, 75-88. Available online: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1992/00000050/00000001/art00006 (accessed on 27 July 2026).

[7] Olla BL, Davis MV, Ryer H . Understanding how the hatchery environment represses or promotes the development of behavioral survival skills. Bull. Mar. Sci. 1998, 62, 531-550. Available online: https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/umrsmas/bullmar/1998/00000062/00000002/art00016 (accessed on 27 July 2026).

[8] Mesa MG. Variation in feeding, aggression and position choice between hatchery and wild cutthroat trout in an artificial stream. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 1981, 120, 723-727. DOI: 10.1577/1548-8659(1991)120%3C0723:VIFAAP%3E2.3.CO;2

[9] Suboski MD, Templeton JJ . Life skills training for hatchery fish: Social learning and survival. Fish. Res. 1989, 7, 343-352. DOI: 10.1016/0165-7836(89)90066-0

[10] Lee S, Zhai S, Deng DF, Li Y, Blaufuss PC, Eggold BT, et al. Feeding strategies for adapting lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens) larvae to formulated diets at early life stages. Animals 2022, 12, 3128. DOI: 10.3390/ani12223128

[11] Chambers MR, Milne H . Life cycle and production of Nereis diversicolor O.F. Müller in the Ythan Estuary, Scotland. Estuary Coast. Mar. Sci. 1975, 3, 133-144. DOI: 10.1016/0302-3524(75)90016-X

[12] Fidalgo e Costa P, Narciso N, Cancela da Fonseca L . Growth, survival and fatty acid profile of Nereis diversicolor fed on six different diets . Bull. Mar. Sci. 2000, 67, 337-343. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232062601_Growth_survival_and_fatty_acid_profile_of_Nereis_diversicolor_O_F_Muller_1776_fed_on_six_different_diets (accessed on 27 July 2026).

[13] Pajand ZO, Soltani M, Kamali A, Bahmani M . Growth, survival and fatty acids profile of Polychaete, Nereis diversicolor (Müller, 1776) cultured using waste water of great sturgeon, Huso huso (Linnaeus, 1758) at different densities in an integrated farming system. Iran. J. Fish. Sci. 2020, 19, 234-247. Available online: https://www.sid.ir/paper/741970/en (accessed on 27 July 2026).

[14] Geiser M, Schurch S, Gehr P . Influnce of surface chemistry and topography of particles on their immersion into the lung’s surface-lining layer. J. Appl. Physiol. 2003, 94, 1793-1801. DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00514.2002

[15] Chan WCW . Bionanotechnology progress and advances. Biol. Blood Marrow Transplant. 2006, 12, 87-91. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbmt.2005.10.004

[16] Nasr-Eldahan S, Nabil-Adam A, Shreadah MA, Maher AM, El-Sayed Ali T . A review article on nanotechnology in aquaculture sustainability as a novel tool in fish disease control. Aquac. Int. 2021, 29, 1459-1480. DOI: 10.1007/s10499-021-00677-7

[17] Hamilton SJ . Review of selenium toxicity in the aquatic food chain. Sci. Total Environ. 2004, 326, 1-31. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.01.019

[18] Han D, Xie S, Liu M, Xiao X, Liu H, Zhu X, et al. The effects of dietary selenium on growth performances, oxidative stress and tissue selenium concentration of gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) . Aquac. Nutr. 2011, 17, e741-e749. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2095.2010.00841.x

[19] Shi J, Votruba AR, Farokhzad OC, Langer R . Nanotechnology in drug delivery and tissue engineering: From discovery to applications. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 3223-3230. DOI: 10.1021/nl102184c

[20] Wang Y, Yan X, Fu L . Effect of selenium nanoparticles with different sizes in primary cultured intestinal epithelial cells of crucian carp, Carassius auratus gibelio . Int. J. Nano Med. 2013, 8, 4007-4013. DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S43691

[21] Juniper DT, Phipps RH, Ramos-Morales E, Bertin G . Effects of dietary supplementation with selenium enriched yeast or sodium selenite on selenium tissue distribution and meat quality in lambs. Anim. Feed. Sci. Technol. 2009, 149, 228-239. DOI: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2008.06.009

[22] Naderi M, Keyvanshokooh S, Salati AP, Ghaedi A . Effects of dietary vitamin E and selenium nanoparticles supplementation on acute stress responses in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) previously subjected to chronic stress. Aquaculture 2017, 473, 215-222. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.02.020

[23] Zhou X, Wang Y, Gu Q, Li W. Effects of different dietary selenium sources (selenium nanoparticle and selenomethionine) on growth performance, muscle composition and glutathione peroxidase enzyme activity of crucian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) . Aquaculture 2009, 291, 78-81. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.06.032

[24] Ashouri S, Keyvanshokooh S, Salati AP, Johari SA, Pasha-Zanoosi H . Effects of different levels of dietary selenium nanoparticles on growth performance, muscle composition, blood biochemical profiles and antioxidant status of common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Aquaculture 2015, 446, 25-29. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.04.021

[25] Saffari S, Keyvanshokooh S, Zakeri M, Johari SA, Pasha-Zanoosi H . Effect of different dietary selenium sources (sodium selenite, selenomethionine and nanoselenium) on growth performance, muscle composition, blood enzymes and antioxidant status of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) . Aquac. Nutr. 2017, 23, 611-617. DOI: 10.1111/anu.12428

[26] Crichton RR. Inorganic Biochemistry of Iron Metabolism ; Ellis Horwood Ltd.: West Sussex, UK, 1991; p. 355.

[27] Brody T. Nutritional Biochemistry ; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 1994; p. 658.

[28] Galbraith ED, Le Mézo P, Solanes Hernandez G, Bianchi D, Kroodsma D . Growth limitation of marine fish by low iron availability in the open ocean. Front. Mar. Sci. 2019, 6, 439120. DOI: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00509

[29] Gatlin M, Wilson RP . Characterization of iron deficiency and the dietary iron requirement of fingerling channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) . Aquac. Res. 1986, 52, 191-198. DOI: 10.1016%2F0044-8486(86)90143-2

[30] Rigos G, Samartzis A, Henry M, Fountoulaki E, Cotou E, Sweetman J, et al. Effects of additive iron on growth, tissue distribution, haematology and immunology of Gilthead Sea bream, Sparus aurata . Aquac. Int. 2010, 16, 1093-1104. DOI: 10.1007/s10499-010-9326-7

[31] Liang JJ, Liu YJ, Yang ZN, Tian LX, Yang HJ, Liang GY . Dietary calcium requirement and effects on growth and tissue calcium of juvenile grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) . Aquac. Nutr. 2012, 18, 544-550. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2095.2011.00916.x

[32] Hem ID . Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water , 3rd ed.; US Geological Survey Water-Supply, Paper 2254; United States Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, USA, 1989.

[33] OECD (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development). Guidance Document on Aquatic Toxicity Testing for PBT Assessment ; OECD Series on Testing and Assessment, No. 57; OECD Publishing: Paris, France, 2006.

[34] Hamdoun A, Epel D . Embryo stability and vulnerability in an always changing world. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 1745-1750. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0610108104

[35] García-Alonso J, Rodriguez-Sanchez N, Misra SK, Valsami-Jones E, Croteau MN, Luoma SN, et al. Toxicity and accumulation of silver nanoparticles during development of the marine polychaete Platynereis dumerilii . Sci. Total Environ. 2014, 476, 688-695. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.01.039

[36] Little S, Johnston HJ, Stone V, Fernandes TF . Acute waterborne and chronic sediment toxicity of silver and titanium dioxide nanomaterials towards the oligochaete, Lumbriculus variegatus . NanoImpact 2021, 21, 100291. DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2020.100291

[37] Cong Y, Banta GT, Selck H, Berhanu D, Valsami-Jones E, Forbes VE . Toxic effects and bioaccumulation of nano-, micron- and ionic-Ag in the polychaete, Nereis diversicolor . Aquat. Toxicol. 2011, 105, 403-411. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2011.07.014

[38] Cong Y, Banta GT, Selck H, Berhanu D, Valsami-Jones E, Forbes VE. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of sediment-associated silver nanoparticles in the estuarine polychaete, Nereis (Hediste) diversicolor . Aquat. Toxicol. 2014, 156, 106-115. DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2014.08.001

[39] Auffan M, Rose J, Bottero JY, Lowry GV, Jolivet JP, Wiesner MR . Towards a definition of inorganic nanoparticles from an environmental, health and safety perspective. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2009, 4, 634-641. DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2009.242

[40] Hjorth R, Skjolding LM, Sørensen SN, Baun A. Regulatory adequacy of aquatic ecotoxicity testing of nanomaterials. NanoImpact 2017, 8, 28-37. DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2017.07.003