Influence of water-to-binder ratios on the performance of limestone calcined clay cement-based paste for mining applications

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the impact of various water-to-binder (w/b) ratios by mass (0.3–2.0) on the performance of limestone calcined clay cement (LC³) pastes. The flowability, setting time, density, unconfined compressive strength, hydration, and microstructure of LC³ pastes under different w/b ratios were thoroughly investigated. The results show that increasing the w/b ratio extends the flowability and setting time while significantly reducing the unconfined compressive strength of LC³ pastes. LC³ pastes with w/b ratios above 0.6 exhibited a final flow diameter surpassing 167 mm, indicating good flowability. The 28-d unconfined compressive strength decreased from 82.3 to 1.3 MPa as the w/b ratio increased from 0.3 to 2.0. This study confirmed that the relationship between unconfined compressive strength and the w/b ratio of LC³ follows Abram’s law. Furthermore, a modified gel/space ratio was proposed to reflect the concentration of solid products, effectively explaining the influence of the w/b ratio on strength, with an R² of 0.96.

Keywords

Water-to-binder ratio / Limestone calcined clay cement / Gel/space ratio / Flowability / Unconfined compressive strength / Bound water

References

[1] B.A.C.S. Jayathilake, Application of Machine Learning Techniques to Predict the Unconfined Compressive Strength of Sustainable Cementitious Materials Used in the Mining Industry (Dissertation), University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 2023.

[2] D. Brown, R. Sadiq, K. Hewage, An overview of air emission intensities and environmental performance of grey cement manufacturing in Canada, Clean Technol. Environ. Policy 16 (6) (2014) 1119-1131.

[3] K. Scrivener, F. Martirena, S. Bishnoi, S. Maity, Calcined clay limestone cements (LC³) , Cem. Concr. Res. 114 (2018) 49-56.

[4] Y.B. Cao, Y.R. Wang, Z.H. Zhang, Y.W. Ma, H. Wang, Recent progress of utilization of activated kaolinitic clay in cementitious construction materials, Compos. Part B Eng. 211 (2021) 108636.

[5] M. Sharma, S. Bishnoi, F. Martirena, K. Scrivener, Limestone calcined clay cement and concrete: a state-of-the-art review, Cem. Concr. Res. 149 (2021) 106564.

[6] M.B. Ali, R. Saidur, M.S. Hossain, A review on emission analysis in cement industries, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (5) (2011) 2252-2261.

[7] F. Avet, R. Snellings, A. Alujas Diaz, M. Ben Haha, K. Scrivener, Development of a new rapid, relevant and reliable (R3) test method to evaluate the pozzolanic reactivity of calcined kaolinitic clays, Cem. Concr. Res. 85 (2016) 1-11.

[8] S. Bishnoi, S. Maity, Limestone calcined clay cement: the experience in India this far, in: F. Martirena, A. Favier, K. Scrivener (Eds.), Calcined Clays for Sustainable Concrete, RILEM Bookseries, vol. 16, Springer, Dordrecht, 2018, pp. 64-68.

[9] S. Joseph, S. Bishnoi, S. Maity, An economic analysis of the production of limestone calcined clay cement in India, Indian Concr. J. 90 (9) (2016).

[10] S. Sánchez Berriel, A. Favier, E. Rosa Domínguez, I.R. Sánchez Machado, U. Heierli, K. Scrivener, F. Martirena Hernández, G. Habert, Assessing the environmental and economic potential of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement in Cuba, J. Clean. Prod. 124 (2016) 361-369.

[11] L. Balck, Guide to shotcrete, Concr. Int. 39 (2017) 35-37.

[12] K.S. Keong, Properties of Cement Based Permeation Grout Used in Ground Engineering (Dissertation), National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore, 2005.

[13] C.Y. Zhang, R.T. Liu, M.J. Chen, J.L. Li, X.C. Wang, Y.K. Liu, Z.J. Zhu, M. Wang, F.S. Fan, Influence of the flocculation effect on the rheological properties of cement slurry, Powder Technol. 398 (2022) 117118.

[14] K. Fang, M. Fall, Effects of curing temperature on shear behaviour of cemented paste backfill-rock interface, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. 112 (2018) 184-192.

[15] T. Yu, B.F. Zhang, P. Yuan, H.Z. Guo, D. Liu, J.R. Chen, H.M. Liu, L. Setti Belaroui, Optimization of mechanical performance of limestone calcined clay cement: effects of calcination temperature of nanosized tubular halloysite, gypsum content, and water/binder ratio, Constr. Build. Mater. 389 (2023) 131709.

[16] Y. Dhandapani, K. Vignesh, T. Raja, M. Santhanam, Development of the microstructure in LC3 systems and its effect on concrete properties, in: F. Martirena, A. Favier, K. Scrivener (Eds.), Calcined Clays for Sustainable Concrete, RILEM Bookseries, vol. 16, Springer, Dordrecht, 2018, pp. 131-140.

[17] R. Hay, K. Celik, Effects of water-to-binder ratios (w/b) and superplasticizer on physicochemical, microstructural, and mechanical evolution of limestone calcined clay cement (LC³) , Constr. Build. Mater. 391 (2023) 131529.

[18] Y. Briki, F. Avet, M. Zajac, P. Bowen, M. Ben Haha, K. Scrivener, Understanding of the factors slowing down metakaolin reaction in limestone calcined clay cement (LC³) at late ages , Cem. Concr. Res. 146 (2021) 106477.

[19] F. Avet, K. Scrivener, Investigation of the calcined kaolinite content on the hydration of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC³) , Cem. Concr. Res. 107 (2018) 124-135.

[20] Y. Dhandapani, T. Sakthivel, M. Santhanam, R. Gettu, R.G. Pillai, Mechanical properties and durability performance of concretes with Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC³) , Cem. Concr. Res. 107 (2018) 136-151.

[21] S. Ferreiro, D. Herfort, J.S. Damtoft, Effect of raw clay type, fineness, water-to-cement ratio and fly ash addition on workability and strength performance of calcined clay-limestone Portland cements, Cem. Concr. Res. 101 (2017) 1-12.

[22] F. Zunino, K. Scrivener, Microstructural developments of limestone calcined clay cement (LC³) pastes after long-term (3 years) hydration , Cem. Concr. Res. 153 (2022) 106693.

[23] ASTM-C940, Standard Test Method for Expansion and Bleeding of Freshly Mixed Grouts for Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete in the Laboratory, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2022.

[24] M. Heikal, M.S. Morsy, I. Aiad, Effect of treatment temperature on the early hydration characteristics of superplasticized silica fume blended cement pastes, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (4) (2005) 680-687.

[25] ASTM-C1437, Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2020.

[26] J.F. Guo, L. Wang, K.P. Fan, B. Yang, An efficient model for predicting setting time of cement based on broad learning system, Appl. Soft Comput. 96 (2020) 106698.

[27] B.J. Christensen, Chapter 11: time of setting, in: L. Pielert (Ed.), Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-making Materials, ASTM STP 169D, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2006, pp. 86-98.

[28] ASTM-C191, Standard Test Methods for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2021.

[29] ASTM-C642, Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2022.

[30] K. Scrivener, R. Snellings, B. Lothenbach, A Practical Guide to Microstructural Analysis of Cementitious Materials, 1st ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2016.

[31] ASTM-C39, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2021.

[32] A.M. Neville, Properties of Concrete, 4th and Final Edition, Longman House, Essex, England, 1995.

[33] P. Termkhajornkit, H.Q. Vu, R. Barbarulo, S. Daronnat, G. Chanvillard, Dependence of compressive strength on phase assemblage in cement pastes: beyond gel-space ratio-experimental evidence and micromechanical modeling, Cem. Concr. Res. 56 (2014) 1-11.

[34] E.K. Kunhanandan Nambiar, K. Ramamurthy, Models for strength prediction of foam concrete, Mater. Struct. 41 (2) (2008) 247-254.

[35] D.O. Nduka, B.J. Olawuyi, O.O. Joshua, I.O. Omuh, A study on gel/space ratio development in binary mixture containing Portland cement and meta-illite calcined clay/rice husk ash, Gels 8 (2) (2022) 85.

[36] V.M. John, M. Quattrone, P.C.R.A. Abrão, F.A. Cardoso, Rethinking cement standards: opportunities for a better future, Cem. Concr. Res. 124 (2019) 105832.

[37] P.T. Durdziński, M. Ben Haha, S.A. Bernal, N. De Belie, E. Gruyaert, B. Lothenbach, E. Menéndez Méndez, J.L. Provis, A. Schöler, C. Stabler, Z.J. Tan, Y. Villagrán Zaccardi, A. Vollpracht, F. Winnefeld, M. Zając, K.L. Scrivener, Outcomes of the RILEM round robin on degree of reaction of slag and fly ash in blended cements, Mater. Struct. 50 (2) (2017) 135.

[38] L. Lam, Y.L. Wong, C.S. Poon, Degree of hydration and gel/space ratio of high-volume fly ash/cement systems, Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (5) (2000) 747-756.

[39] V. Kocaba, E. Gallucci, K.L. Scrivener, Methods for determination of degree of reaction of slag in blended cement pastes, Cem. Concr. Res. 42 (3) (2012) 511-525.

[40] M. Zhao, X. Zhang, Y.J. Zhang, Effect of free water on the flowability of cement paste with chemical or mineral admixtures, Constr. Build. Mater. 111 (2016) 571-579.

[41] D.J. Campbell, Liquid and plastic limits, in: K.A. Smith (Ed.), Soil and Environmental Analysis: Physical Methods, Revised, and Expanded, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2000, pp. 349-375.

[42] A. Duran-Herrera, J. De-León-Esquivel, D.P. Bentz, P. Valdez-Tamez, Self-compacting concretes using fly ash and fine limestone powder: shrinkage and surface electrical resistivity of equivalent mortars, Constr. Build. Mater. 199 (2019) 50-62.

[43] K.H. Khayat, Workability, testing, and performance of self-consolidating concrete, Acids Mater. J. 96 (3) (1999) 346-353.

[44] J.J. Brooks, M.A. Megat Johari, M. Mazloom, Effect of admixtures on the setting times of high-strength concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. 22 (4) (2000) 293-301.

[45] A. Nonat, Interactions between chemical evolution (hydration) and physical evolution (setting) in the case of tricalcium silicate, Mater. Struct. 27 (4) (1994) 187-195.

[46] ASTM-C1157, Standard Performance Specification for Hydraulic Cement, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2023.

[47] J. Warner, Practical Handbook of Grouting: Soil, Rock, and Structures, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.

[48] M.R. Azadi, A. Taghichian, A. Taheri, Optimization of cement-based grouts using chemical additives, J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 9 (4) (2017) 623-637.

[49] ASTM-C125, Standard Terminology Relating to Concrete and Concrete Aggregates, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2021.

[50] Z.Q. Yu, C.X. Ni, M.L. Tang, X.D. Shen, Relationship between water permeability and pore structure of Portland cement paste blended with fly ash, Constr. Build. Mater. 175 (2018) 458-466.

[51] E.R. Latifee, D. Sen, M.R. Kabir, Effect of water to cement ratio and age on Portland composite cement mortar porosity, strength and evaporation rate, Am. J. Eng. Res. 5 (8) (2016) 120-127.

[52] E. L’Hôpital, B. Lothenbach, D.A. Kulik, K. Scrivener, Influence of calcium to silica ratio on aluminium uptake in calcium silicate hydrate, Cem. Concr. Res. 85 (2016) 111-121.

[53] K. Scrivener, F. Avet, H. Maraghechi, F. Zunino, J. Ston, W. Hanpongpun, A. Favier, Impacting factors and properties of limestone calcined clay cements (LC³) , Green Mater. 7 (1) (2019) 3-14.

[54] C. Hall, P. Barnes, A.D. Billimore, A.C. Jupe, X. Turrillas, Thermal decomposition of ettringite Ca₆[Al(OH)₆]₂(SO₄)₃·26H₂O , J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans. 92 (12) (1996) 2125-2129.

[55] G.P. Huang, D. Pudasainee, R. Gupta, W.V. Liu, The performance of calcium sulfoaluminate cement for preventing early-age frost damage, Constr. Build. Mater. 254 (2020) 119322.

[56] F. Zunino, K. Scrivener, The influence of the filler effect on the sulfate requirement of blended cements, Cem. Concr. Res. 126 (2019) 105918.

[57] S. Krishnan, A.C. Emmanuel, S. Bishnoi, Hydration and phase assemblage of ternary cements with calcined clay and limestone, Constr. Build. Mater. 222 (2019) 64-72.

[58] C.K. Fan, N. Zhang, B. Jiang, W.V. Liu, Using deep neural networks coupled with principal component analysis for ore production forecasting at open-pit mines, J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 16 (3) (2024) 727-740.

[59] J. Zhao, G.P. Huang, Y.T. Guo, R. Gupta, W. Liu, Developing thermal insulation cement-based mortars using recycled carbon black derived from scrapped off-the-road tires, Constr. Build. Mater. 393 (2023) 132043.

[60] R. Hay, L. Li, K. Celik, Shrinkage, hydration, and strength development of limestone calcined clay cement (LC³) with different sulfation levels , Cem. Concr. Compos. 127 (2022) 104403.

[61] E.S. Leo, M.G. Alexander, H. Beushausen, Optimisation of mix proportions of LC³ binders with African clays, based on compressive strength of mortars, and associated hydration aspects , Cem. Concr. Res. 173 (2023) 107255.

[62] X.Y. Pang, The effect of water-to-cement ratio on the hydration kinetics of Portland cement at different temperatures, in: Proceedings of the 14th International Congress on Cement Chemistry, Beijing, China, 2015.

[63] T. Matschei, B. Lothenbach, F.P. Glasser, The role of calcium carbonate in cement hydration, Cem. Concr. Res. 37 (4) (2007) 551-558.

[64] R. Snellings, A. Machner, G. Bolte, H. Kamyab, P. Durdzinski, P. Teck, M. Zajac, A. Muller, K. de Weerdt, M. Ben Haha, Hydration kinetics of ternary slag-limestone cements: impact of water to binder ratio and curing temperature, Cem. Concr. Res. 151 (2022) 106647.

[65] N. Venkat Rao, T. Meena, A review on carbonation study in concrete, IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 263 (2017) 032011.

[66] D.W.S. Ho, R.K. Lewis, Carbonation of concrete and its prediction, Cem. Concr. Res. 17 (3) (1987) 489-504.

[67] ACI Committee 506, Guide to Shotcrete, ACI Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 2016.

[68] W.K. Yip, Generic form of stress-strain equations for concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 28 (1) (1998) 33-39.

[69] S.Y. He, J.X. Lai, L.X. Wang, K. Wang, A literature review on properties and applications of grouts for shield tunnel, Constr. Build. Mater. 239 (2020) 117782.

[70] S. Mahdinia, H. Eskandari-Naddaf, R. Shadnia, Effect of cement strength class on the prediction of compressive strength of cement mortar using GEP method, Constr. Build. Mater. 198 (2019) 27-41.

[71] T.C. Powers, Structure and physical properties of hardened Portland cement paste, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 41 (1) (1958) 1-6.