The evolution of lithium resources and isotopic composition in salt lakes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau: A source-transport-sink perspective

Abstract

The source-transport-sink dynamics of salt lakes are fundamentally tied to resource source and mineralization, which are crucial for sustainable resource development and environmental protection. By integrating published and experimental datasets on lithium (Li) concentrations, Li isotopes, and Li/TDS-Li/Na ratios, this study systematically investigates the characteristics, evolutionary patterns, and driving mechanisms of Li and its isotopes throughout source-transport-sink processes in salt lakes across the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The results demonstrate that: (1) Li in salt lakes primarily originates from geothermal fluids, with significant contributions from Li-rich rocks and paleosediments. (2) Li transport mechanisms can be classified into source- and process-control. In source-control systems, Li is largely derived from Li-rich endmembers; although secondary inputs and attenuation occur during transport, the persistently high dissolved Li load governed by the original source retains a diagnostically traceable isotopic composition. This system is marked by high dissolved Li fluxes (>300 l g/L), elevated Li × 10³/TDS ratios (>0.7), and relatively depleted d⁷Li values (1 ‰ to 6 ‰, occasionally as low as − 4.8 ‰ ). In process-control systems, Li mainly comes from silicate weathering within catchments, resulting in lower riverine Li fluxes (20-80 l g/L) that are highly sensitive to environmental conditions, where source signals are frequently overprinted by secondary inputs and adsorption. These systems exhibit lower Li × 10³/TDS ratios (0.05-0.22) and enriched d⁷Li values ranging from 6 ‰ to 18 ‰. (3) The sink evolution of Li and its isotopes is controlled by clay adsorption and evaporite precipitation, closely correlating with developmental phases of salt lake. Clay adsorption causes Li depletion and isotopic fractionation, leading to elevated d⁷Li signatures in the early evolutionary phase. In later phases, evaporate becomes the dominant control on brine Li isotope evolution due to evaporite formed aquicludes, reduced adsorption capacity of ancient clays, and suppression of adsorption under high salinity. (4) This study offers valuable references for understanding Cenozoic marine Li isotope evolution by establishing a source-transport-sink framework within a small sink basin. Tectonic uplift has enhanced continental weathering and physical erosion, increasing supplies of dissolved Li and fresh clay minerals in runoff, while climate change has reduced continental discharge and extended water-rock interaction time. These processes collectively enhance water-rock interactions through increased reactant supply and prolonged reaction duration, elevating riverine d⁷Li fluxes into the ocean and influencing marine Li isotope evolution.

Keywords

Source-transport-sink / Li isotope / Li concentration / Qinghai-Tibet Plateau / Salt lake

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Hualing Song: Writing - review & editing, Writing - original draft, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Qishun Fan: Project administration, Conceptualization. Jianping Wang: Writing - review & editing, Resources, Project administration, Investigation. Jiansen Li: Resources, Data curation. Zhiyong Ling: Validation, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Jinjun Han: Data curation, Conceptualization. Chuntao Zhao: Investigation. Tianli Wang: Methodology, Investigation, Data curation. Jiao Yu: Methodology, Investigation, Data curation.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2023YFC2908600), National Natural Science Foundation of China (U20A2088) and Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (2019QZKK0805-02).

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2025.102156.

References

[1] Bartier, E., 2002. Geothermal energy technology and current status: an overview. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 6 (1), 3-65.

[2] Chen, C., Lee, C.T., Tang, M., Biddle, K., Sun, W.D., 2020. Lithium systematics in global arc magmas and the importance of crustal thickening for lithium Enrichment. Nat. Commun. 11 (1), 5313.

[3] Dellinger, M., Gaillardet, J., Bouchez, J., Calmels, D., Louvat, P., Dosseto, A., Gorge, C., Alanoca, L., Maurice, L., 2015. Riverine Li isotope fractionation in the Amazon River basin controlled by the weathering regimes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 164, 71-93.

[4] Dhananjay, D., Nagaraju, J., Krupanidhi, S., 2006. Effect of Li substitution on dielectric and ferroelectric properties of ZnO thin films grown by pulsed-laser ablation. J. Appl. Phys. 99, 034105.

[5] Godfrey, L.V., Chan, L.H., Alonso, R.N., Lowenstein, T.K., McDonough, W.F., Houston, J., Li, J., Bobst, A., Jordan, T.E., 2013. The role of climate in the accumulation of lithium-rich brine in the Central Andes. Appl. Geochem. 38, 92-102.

[6] Godfrey, L.V., Herrerab, C., Gamboab, C., Mathur, R., 2019. Chemical and isotopic evolution of groundwater through the active andean arc of Northern Chile. Chem. Geol. 518, 23-44.

[7] Gou, L.F., Jin, Z.D., Strandmann, P.A.E., Li, G., Qu, Y.X., Xiao, J., Deng, L., Galy, A., 2019. Li isotopes in the middle Yellow River: Seasonal variability, sources and fractionation. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 248, 88-108.

[8] Gupta, H.K., Roy, S., 2007. Geothermal Energy:an Alternative Resource for the 21st Century. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

[9] He, M.Y., Luo, C.G., Yang, H.J., Kong, F.C., Li, Y.L., Deng, L., Zhang, X.Y., Yang, K.Y., 2020. Sources and a proposal for comprehensive exploitation of lithium brine deposits in the Qaidam Basin on the northern Tibetan Plateau, China: evidence from Li isotopes. Ore Geol. Rev. 117, 103277.

[10] Hu, D.S., 1997. Geochemical characteristics of the water body in the Kekexili region lakes. Oceanologia et Limnologia Sinica 28 (2), 153-164 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[11] Hou, Z.Q., Li, Z.Q., 2004. Possible location for underthrusting front of the Indus Continent: Constraints from helium isotope of the geothermal gas in southern Tibet and eastern Tibet. Acta Geol Sin 78 ( 4), 482-493 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[12] Hartman, I.E., Tan, H.B., Su, J.B., Yang, J.Y., 2021. Origin of the enrichment of B and alkali metal elements in the geothermal water in the Tibetan Plateau: evidence from B and Sr isotopes. Geochemistry 81 (3), 125797.

[13] Kısakürek, B., James, R.H., Harris, N.B.W., 2005. Li and d⁷Li in Himalayan rivers: proxies for silicate weathering? Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 237, 387-401.

[14] Lei, Y., Zhou, J., Yao, T., Bird, B.W., Yu, Y., Wang, S., Yang, K., Zhang, Y., Zhai, J., Dai, Y., 2024. Overflow of Siling Co on the central Tibetan Plateau and its environmental impacts. Sci. Bull. 69, 2829-2832.

[15] Li, J.S., Dong, Q.H., Jiang, Y.X., Nie, Y.F., Zhu, G.Q., Li, L.M., 2017. Geochemical genesis of the springs in Wenquan Ditch of Da Qaidam Area. Journal of Salt Lake Research 25 (2), 55-59 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[16] Li, Z.Q., 2002. Modern Hydrothermal activity in the Collision Tectonic Process of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Ph.D. thesis, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (in Chinese with English Abstract).

[17] Li, Z.Y., He, M.Y., Li, B.K., Wen, X.Q., Zhou, J.D., Cheng, Y.Y., Zhang, N., Deng, L., 2024. Multi-isotopic composition (Li and B isotopes) and hydrochemistry characterization of the Lakko Co Li-rich salt lake in Tibet, China: Origin and hydrological processes. J. Hydrol. 630, 130714.

[18] Li, B.K., 2023. Material Source, Migration Process and Formation Model of Boron-Rich Salt Lake in Qinghai-Tibet. Ph.D. thesis, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (in Chinese with English abstract).

[19] Li, G., West, A.J., 2014. Evolution of Cenozoic seawater lithium isotopes: coupling of global denudation regime and shifting seawater sinks. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 401, 284-293.

[20] Li, Y.L., Miao, W.L., He, M.Y., Li, C.Z., Gu, H.E., Zhang, X.Y., 2023. Origin of lithium-rich salt lakes on the western Kunlun Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau: evidence from hydrogeochemistry and lithium isotopes. Ore Geol. Rev. 155, 105356.

[21] Li, J., Wang, X., Ruan, C., Sagoe, G., Li, J., 2022. Enrichment mechanisms of lithium for the geothermal springs in the southern Tibet, China. J. Hydrol. 612 (Part A), 128022.

[22] Li, Q.K., 2020. Multi-Index Study on the Source, Migration and Enrichment of Lithium in the Nalenggele River Drainage and Terminal Lakes. Ph.D. thesis, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (in Chinese with English abstract).

[23] Lin, Y.J., Merli, M., Censi, P., Redfern, S.A.T., Zhao, Y., Yin, Q.Z., Zheng, M.P., Yu, X.D., Zhang, Y.S., Knapp, W.J., Tipper, E.T., 2024. Experimental and theoretical constraints on lithium isotope fractionation during brine evaporation and halite precipitation. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 374, 250-263.

[24] Lv, Y.Y., Zheng, M.P., Chen, W.X., Zhang, X.F., Liu, X.F., Wu, Q., Yu, J.J., 2013. Origin of boron in the Damxung Co Salt Lake (central Tibet): evidence from boron geochemistry and isotopes. Geochem. J. 47, 513-523.

[25] Liu, M.L., 2018. Geochemical study of boron in typical high-temperature hydrothermal system in Tibet. Ph.D. thesis, China University of Geosciences (in Chinese with English abstract).

[26] Liu, M.L., Kong, Y.L., Guo, Q.H., 2025. Sources and enrichment mechanisms of lithium, rubidium, and cesium in waters of magmatic-hydrothermal systems. Earth-Sci. Rev. 270, 105241.

[27] Liu, W.G., Xiao, Y.K., Peng, Z.C., 1999. Preliminary study of hydrochemistry characteristics of boron and chlorine isotopes of salt lake brines in Qaidam Basin. Journal of Salt Lake Research 7, 8-14 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[28] Liu, B., Du, Y., Li, L., Feng, Q., Xie, H., Liang, T., Hou, F., Ren, J., 2016. Outburst flooding of the moraine dammed Zhuonai Lake on Tibetan Plateau: Causes and impacts. IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 13, 570-574.

[29] Liu, W., Xie, C., Zhao, L., Wu, T., Wang, W., Zhang, Y., Yang, G., Zhu, X., Yue, G., 2019. Dynamic changes in lakes in the Hoh Xil region before and after the 2011 outburst of Zonag Lake. J. Mt. Sci. 16, 1098-1110.

[30] Lu, S., Jin, J., Zhou, J., Li, X., Ju, J., Li, M., Chen, F., Zhu, L., Zhao, H., Yan, Q., Xie, C., Yao, X., Fagherazzi, S., 2021. Drainage basin reorganization and endorheic-exorheic transition triggered by climate change and human intervention. Global Planet. Change 201, 103494.

[31] Ma, T.T., Weynell, M., Wiecher, U., Li, S.L., Liu, Y.S., Chetelat, B., Zhong, J., Xu, S., Liu, C.Q., 2020. Lithium isotope compositions of the Yangtze River headwaters: Weathering in high-relief catchments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 280, 46-65.

[32] Mao, X.C., Liu, X., Dong, Y., Bai, Y.S., Yu, Y.D., Song, B.W., 2018. Research on the genesis of semi-submerged Yardang Land form in the Duck Lake area of Qaidam Basin. Geological Review 64 (6), 1505-1518 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[33] Meixner, A., Alonso, R.N., Lucassen, F., Korte, L., Kasemann, S.A., 2022. Lithium and Sr isotopic composition of salar deposits in the Central Andes across space and time: the Salar de Pozuelos, Argentina. Mineralium Deposita 57, 255-278.

[34] Miao, W.L., Zhang, X.Y., Li, Y.L., Li, W.X., Yuan, X.L., Li, C.L., 2022. Lithium and strontium isotopic systematics in the Nalenggele River catchment of Qaidam basin, China: Quantifying contributions to lithium brines and deciphering lithium behavior in hydrological processes. J. Hydrol. 614, 128630.

[35] Millot, R., Vigier, N., Gaillardet, J., 2010. Behaviour of lithium and its isotopes during weathering in the Mackenzie Basin, Canada. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 74, 3897-3912.

[36] Misra, S., Froelich, P.N., 2012. Lithium isotope history of Cenozoic seawater: changes in silicate weathering and reverse weathering. Science 335, 818-823.

[37] Mu, B.L., 1999. Element Geochemistry. Peking University Press, Beijing.

[38] Munk, L.A., Boutt, D., Butler, K., Aeon Russo, A., Jordan Jenckes, J., Moran, B., Kirshen, A., 2025. Lithium brines: Origin, characteristics, and global distribution. Econ. Geol. 120 (3), 575-597.

[39] Nicholson, K., 1993. Geothermal Fluids:Chemistry and Exploration Techniques. Springer Verlag, Berlin.

[40] Pan, T., Chen, J.Z., Ding, C.W., Ma, Y.L., Liang, H., Zhang, T., Du, X.C., 2023. Occurrence characteristics of lithium rare light metal clay-type deposits in Balunmahai Basin of Qaidam Basin. Gold Science and Technology 31 (3), 359-377 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[41] Pang, X.P., 2009. Hydrochemistry of Bukadaban Hot Spring in Hoh Xil Area, Qinghai Province and Study on Spring Bloom Deposition. Master thesis, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (in Chinese with English abstract).

[42] Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Henderson, G.M., 2015. The Li isotope response to mountain uplift. Geology 43, 67-70.

[43] Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Burton, K.W., James, R.H., Gislason, S.R., Mokadem, F., 2006. Riverine behaviour of uranium and lithium isotopes in an actively glaciated basaltic terrain. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 251, 134-147.

[44] Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Frings, P.J., Murphy, M.J., 2017. Lithium isotope behaviour during weathering in the Ganges Alluvial Plain. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 198, 17-31.

[45] Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E.,Opfergelt, S., Lai, Y.J., Sigfusson, B., Gislason, S.R., Burton, K.W., 2012. Lithium, magnesium and silicon isotope behaviour accompanying weathering in a basaltic soil and pore water profile in Iceland. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 339-340, 11-23.

[46] Pogge von Strandmann, P.A.E., Burton, K.W., Opfergelt, S., Genson, B., Guicharnaud, R.A., Gislason, S.R., 2021. The lithium isotope response to the variable weathering of soils in Iceland. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 313, 55-73.

[47] Song, H.L., Fan, Q.S., Li, Q.K., Chen, T.Y., Yang, H.T., Han, C.M., 2023. Recharge models limit the resource elements of Qarhan Salt Lake in western China and analogues in the evaporite basins. J. Oceanol. Limnol. 41 (4), 1221-1225.

[48] Song, H.L., Fan, Q.S., Li, Q.K., Chen, T.Y., Yang, H.T., Wei, Q., 2024a. Ca-high water recharge and mixing constrain on evolution and K enrichment of brine deposits in the evaporite basin: Case and analogue study in the Qaidam Basin. Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. J. Hydrol. 632, 130883.

[49] Song, H.L., Fan, Q.S., Ma, Y.Q., Li, Q.K., Chen, T.Y., Yang, H.T., Han, C.M., Xiang, H.L., 2024b. Source-sink recharge process constraints chemical and boron isotope evolution on the multi-decadal and monthly timescales in typical boron-rich lake basins on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. J. Hydrol. 631, 130731.

[50] Tan, H.B., Shi, Z.W., Cong, P.X., Xuan, F., Chen, G.F., 2023. The spatial distribution law of B, Li, Rb and Cs elements and supernormal enrichment mechanism in Tibet geothermal system. Sediment Geol Tethyan Geol 43 (2), 404-415 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[51] Tan, H.B., Zhang, Y.F., Zhang, W.J., Kong, N., Zhang, Q., Huang, J.Z., 2014. Understanding the circulation of geothermal waters in the Tibetan Plateau using oxygen and hydrogen stable isotopes. Appl. Geochem. 51, 23-32.

[52] Tong, W., Liao, Z.J., Liu, S.B., Zhang, Z.F., You, M.Z., Zhang, M.T., 2000. Xizang Hot Springs. Science Press, Beijing (in Chinese with English abstract).

[53] Tomascak, P.B., Hemming, N.G., Hemming, S.R., 2003. The lithium isotopic composition of waters of the Mono Basin, California. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67 (4), 601-611.

[54] Vigier, N., Goddéris, Y., 2015. A new approach for modeling Cenozoic oceanic lithium isotope paleo-variations: the key role of climate. Clim. Past 11 (4), 635-645.

[55] Vigier, N., Decarreau, A., Millot, R., Carignan, J., Petit, S., France-Lanord, C., 2008. Quantifying Li isotope fractionation during smectite formation and implications for the Li cycle. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72 (3), 780-792.

[56] Wan, H.P., Zhang, S., Gao, H.L., Hao, W.L., Hu, Z.H., Hu, X.C., Wu, R.J., 2023. Hydrothermal system formation mechanism of Gulu geothermal field. World Nuclear Geoscience 40 (3), 687-700 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[57] Wang, C.G., Zheng, M.P., Zhang, X.F., Xing, E.Y., Ye, C.Y., Ren, J.H., Li, M.M., He, J.T., Wang, F.X., 2024. Hydrochemical characteristics and origins of geothermal fluids in the Gudui high-temperature geothermal systemin Comei County, southern Tibet. Acta Geol. Sin. 98 (2), 558-578 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[58] Wang, C.G., Zheng, M.P., Zhang, X.F., Ye, C.Y., Wu, Q., Chen, S.S., Li, M.M., Ding, T., Du, S.R., 2020. Geothermal-type lithium resources in Southern Tibetan Plateau. Science & Technology Review 38 (15), 24-36 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[59] Wang, S.Q., 2017. Hydrogeochemical processes and genesis mechanism of high-temperature geothermal systemin Gudui, Tibet. Ph.D. thesis, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) (in Chinese with English abstract).

[60] Wang, Q.L., Chetelat, B., Zhao, Z.Q., Ding, H., Li, S.L., Wang, B.L., Li, J., Liu, X.L., 2015. Behavior of lithium isotopes in the Changjiang River system: sources effects and response to weathering and erosion. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 151, 117-132.

[61] Wang, L., Liu, H., Zhong, X., Zhou, J., Zhu, L., Yao, T., Xie, C., Ju, J., Chen, D., Yang, K., 2022. Domino effect of a natural cascade alpine lake system on the Third Pole. PNAS Nexus 1, pgac053.

[62] Wanner, C., Sonnenthal, E.L., Liu, X.M., 2014. Seawater d⁷Li: a direct proxy for global CO₂ consumption by continental silicate weathering? Chem. Geol. 381, 154-167.

[63] Warren, J.K., 2016. Evaporites:a Geological Compendium. Springer International Publishing, Cham.

[64] Wei, X.J., Shao, C.F., Wang, M.L., Zhao, D.J., Cai, K.Q., Jiang, J.X., He, G.Q., Hu, W.X., 1993. Material Constituents, Depositional Features and Forming Conditions of Potassium-rich Salt Lakes in Western Qaidam Basin. Geological Press, Beijing (in Chinese with English abstract).

[65] Weynell, M., Wiechert, U., Zhang, C., 2016. Chemical and isotopic (O, H, C) composition of surface waters in the catchment of Lake Donggi Cona (NW China) and implications for paleoenvironmental reconstructions. Chem. Geol. 435, 92-107.

[66] Weynell, M., Wiechert, U., Schuessler, J., 2017. Lithium isotopes and implications on chemical weathering in the catchment of Lake Donggi Cona, northeastern Tibetan Plateau. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 213, 155-177.

[67] Weynell, M., Wiechert, U., Schuessler, J.A., 2021. Lithium isotope signatures of weathering in the hyper-arid climate of the western Tibetan Plateau. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 293, 205-223.

[68] Xiao, Y., Qi, H., Wang, Y., Jin, L., 1994. Lithium isotopic compositions of brine, sediments and source water in Da Qaidam Lake, Qinghai, China. Geochimica 23 (4), 329-338 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[69] Xu, F.L., Liu, Y., Zhang, G.Q., Zhao, P., Woolway, R.I., Zhu, Y.N., Ju, J.T., Zhou, T., Wang, X., Chen, W.F., 2025. Recent large-inland-lake outbursts on the Tibetan Plateau: processes, causes, and mechanisms. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 25 (3), 1187-1206.

[70] Xuan, F., Tan, H.B., Zhang, X.Y., Santosh, M., Cong, P.X., Chao Li, L.G., Chen, G.H., Zhang, Y., 2024. Contrasting sources and enrichment mechanisms in lithium-rich salt lakes: a Li-H-O isotopic and geochemical study from northern Tibetan Plateau. Geosci. Front. 15, 101768.

[71] Yu, F., Yu, Y., Wang, D.H., Gao, J.Q., Wang, C.H., Guo, W.M., 2022. Application of Li isotope in geothermal fluid-rock interaction: a case study of modern Li-rich geothermal water in western Sichuan. Acta Petrol. Sin. 38 (2), 472-482 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[72] Yu, J.Q., Gao, C.L., Cheng, A.Y., Liu, Y., Zhang, L., 2013. Geomorphic, hydroclimatic and hydrothermal controls on the formation of lithium brine deposits in the Qaidam Basin, northern Tibetan Plateau, China. Ore Geol. Rev. 50, 171-183.

[73] Yuan, G.L., Ma, Y.L., Chen, J.Z., Liang, Y.S., Xu, Y.F., Zhao, H.D., Ding, C.W., Liang, H., 2024. Study on composition and dissolution test of clay-type potassium lithium ore in salt lake of Balunmahai Basin, Qaidam, Qinghai. Gold Science and Technology 32 (4), 579-593 (in Chinese with English abstract).

[74] Yuan, J.Q., Yang, Q., Sun, D.P., Huo, C.Y., Cai, K.Q., Wang, W.D., Liu, Z., 1995. The Forming Condition of Potash Deposit in Qarhan Salt Lake. Geological Press, Beijing.

[75] Zhang, J.W., Yan, Y.N., Zhao, Z.Q., Liu, X.M., Li, X.D., Zhang, D., Ding, H., Meng, J.L., Liu, C.Q., 2022a. Spatiotemporal variation of Li isotopes in the Yarlung Tsangpo River basin (upper reaches of the Brahmaputra River): source and process. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 600, 117875.

[76] Zhang, Y., Tan, H.B., Cong, P.X., Rao, W.B., Ta, W.Q., Lu, S.C., Shi, D.P., 2022b. Boron and lithium isotopic constraints on their origin, evolution, and enrichment processes in a river groundwater-salt lake system in the Qaidam Basin, northeastern Tibetan Plateau. Ore Geol. Rev. 149, 105110.

[77] Zhang, F., Dellinger, M., Hilton, R.G., Yu, J.M., Allen, M.B., Densmore, A.L., Sun, H., Jin, Z.D., 2022c. Hydrological control of river and seawater lithium isotopes. Nat. Commun. 13, 3359.

[78] Zhang, P.X., 1987. Salt Lake in Qaidam Basin. Science Press, Beijing.

[79] Zhang, X.Y., Miao, W.L., Han, G., Li, W.X., Li, Y.L., Han, W.X., Yuan, W.H., 2025. Genesis and resource of lithium brines in the Qaidam Basin of North Qinghai-Xizang Plateau: an overview. Eco. Geol. 120 (5), 1089-1111.

[80] Zhou, J.D., He, M.Y., Li, B.K., Jiao, J.G., Tang, Z.L., Li, Z.Y., Rao, H.H., 2025. Lithium isotopic composition of the carbonate type salt lake in Tibet and its implication for origin and hydrological processes. Sci. Rep. 15, 11862.

[81] Zhu, G.H., Ma, J.L., Wei, G.J., Zhang, L., Wang, Z.B., Zhang, Z.Y., Zeng, T., 2023. Lithium isotope fractionation during the weathering of granite: responses to pH. Geochim. Cosmochim Acta. 345, 117-129.