Monazite as an indicator for orogenic gold deposits: Constraints from detrital zircon Th/U ratio and isotope data in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt

Abstract

Compared to typical orogenic gold deposits, the relationship between the host rocks and orogenic gold deposits in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) appears less pronounced. This study complies a dataset of 97,088 U-Pb and 12,757 Hf isotopic detrital zircon analyses, employing a combination of mapping and statistical analyses techniques, to investigate the connection. Results show that regions with a Th/U ratio below 0.7 and a mantle contribution calculated ranging from 50% to 75% are favorable zones for the localization of orogenic gold deposits. The findings indicate that the presence of monazite, along with a certain input of mantle material into the host rocks, is a favorable factor for the formation of orogenic gold deposits. Moreover, the host rocks of orogenic gold deposits predominantly form in convergent tectonic settings. This study not only reveals the relationship between orogenic gold deposits and host rocks, but also offers valuable exploration implications in CAOB.

Keywords

Orogenic gold deposits / Detrital zircon / Monazite / Central Asian Orogenic Belt

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Genshen Cao: Writing - original draft, Visualization, Data curation. Huayong Chen: Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the Xinjiang Key Research and Development Program (2023B03014), the National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFC2903301), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42230810).

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2025.102155.

References

[1] Baker, M.B., Stolper, E.M., 1994. Determining the composition of high-pressure mantle melts using diamond aggregates. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 58, 2811-2827. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(94)90116-3.

[2] Bea, F., 1996. Residence of REE, Y, Th and U in granites and crustal protoliths: Implications for the chemistry of crustal melts. J. Petrol. 37, 521-552. https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/37.3.521.

[3] Burnham, A.D., Berry, A.J., 2012. An experimental study of trace element partitioning between zircon and melt as a function of oxygen fugacity. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 95, 196-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2012.07.034.

[4] Cao, G.S., Zhang, Y., Zhao, H.T., Cheng, J.M., Hao, J.Y., Lei, J.Z., Song, S.L., Wang, X., 2023. Trace element variations of pyrite in orogenic gold deposits: Constraints from big data and machine learning. Ore Geol. Rev. 157, 105447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2023.105447.

[5] D’Agostino, R.B., Pearson, E.S., 1973. Tests for departure from normality. Empirical results for the distributions of b 2 and b 1. Biometrika 60, 613-622. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/60.3.613.

[6] D’Agostino, R.B., Belanger, A., D’Agostino, Jr., R.B., 1990. A suggestion for using powerful and informative tests of normality. The Amer. Statist. 44, 316-321.

[7] Deng, J., Qiu, K.F., Wang, Q.F., Goldfarb, R., Yang, L.Q., Zi, J.W., Geng, J.Z., Ma, Y., 2020. In situ dating of hydrothermal monazite and implications for the geodynamic controls on ore formation in the Jiaodong Gold Province, Eastern China. Econ. Earth Sci. 128, 124-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/25726838.2019.1583310.

[8] Gaboury, D., 2019. Parameters for the formation of orogenic gold deposits. Appl. Earth Sci. 128, 124-133. https://doi.org/10.1080/25726838.2019.1583310.

[9] Gehrels, G., 2012. Detrital zircon U-Pb geochronology:current methods and new opportunities. In: Busby C., Azor A. (Eds.), Tectonics of Sedimentary Basins:Recent Advances. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Chichester, West Sussex, pp. 45-62.

[10] Goldfarb, R.J., Baker, T., Dubé B., Groves, D.I., Hart, C.J.R., Gosselin, P., 2005. Distribution, character, and genesis of gold deposits in metamorphic terranes. In: Hedenquist J.W., Thompson J.F.H., Goldfarb R.J., Richards J.P. (Eds.),Economic Geology One Hundredth Anniversary Volume. Society of Economic Geologists, pp. 407-450. https://doi.org/10.5382/AV100.14.

[11] Graupner, T., Kempe, U.L.F., Spooner, E.T.C., Bray, C.J., Kremenetsky, A.A., Irmer, G., chromatographic analysis of hydrothermal fluids in the Paleozoic Muruntau Au-bearing quartz vein ore field, Uzbekistan. Econ. Geol. 96, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.96.1.1.

[12] Groves, D.I., Goldfarb, R.J., Gebre-Mariam, M., Hagemann, S.G., Robert, F., 1998. Orogenic gold deposits: a proposed classification in the context of their crustal distribution and relationship to other gold deposit types. Ore Geol. Rev. 13, 7-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-1368(97)00012-7.

[13] Groves, D.I., Santosh, M., Deng, J., Wang, Q.F., Yang, L.Q., Zhang, L., 2020. A holistic model for the origin of orogenic gold deposits and its implications for exploration. Miner. Deposita 55, 275-292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-019-00877-5.

[14] Hermann, J., 2002. Allanite: Thorium and light rare earth element carrier in subducted crust. Chem. Geol. 192, 289-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(02)00222-X.

[15] Herzog, M., LaFlamme, C., Beaudoin, G., Barré G., Martin, L., Savard, D., 2024. Fluid-rock sulfidation reactions control Au-Ag-Te-Bi precipitation in the Val-d’Or orogenic gold vein field (Abitibi subprovince, Canada). Miner. Deposita 59, 1039-1064. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-024-01247-6.

[16] Kempe, U., Graupner, T., Seltmann, R., de Boorder, H., Dolgopolova, A., van Emmichoven, M.Z., 2016. The Muruntau gold deposit (Uzbekistan): a unique ancient hydrothermal system in the southern Tien Shan. Geosci. Front. 7, 495-528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2015.09.005.

[17] Kerrich, R., Goldfarb, R.J., Groves, D.I., Garwin, S., Jia, Y.F., 2000. The characteristics, origins, and geodynamic settings of supergiant gold metallogenic provinces. Sci. China. Ser. D Earth Sci. 43, 1-68. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02911933.

[18] Kirkland, C.L., Smithies, R.H., Taylor, R.J.M., Evans, N., McDonald, B., 2015. Zircon Th/U ratios in magmatic environs. Lithos 212-215, 397-414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2014.11.021.

[19] Lebrenz, H., Bárdossy, A., 2019. Geostatistical interpolation by quantile kriging. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 23, 1633-1648. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-1633-2019.

[20] Li, H.J., Wang, Q.F., Yang, L., Dong, C.Y., Weng, W.J., Deng, J., 2022. Alteration and mineralization patterns in orogenic gold deposits: Constraints from deposit observation and thermodynamic modeling. Chem. Geol. 607, 121012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2022.121012.

[21] Liu, H.M., Beaudoin, G., Makvandi, S., Jackson, S.E., Huang, X.W., 2021. Multivariate statistical analysis of trace element compositions of native gold from orogenic gold deposits: Implication for mineral exploration. Ore Geol. Rev. 131, 104061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104061.

[22] Liu, J., Bao, X.S., Kou, S.L., Yang, W., Gao, Y.B., Wei, L.Y., Ma, C., Yang, L.Q., 2023. LA-ICP-MS U-Pb geochronology and geological significance of two types of monazite in the Xinjiazui gold deposit, northwestern margin of Yangtze Block, China. Ore Geol. Rev. 161, 105626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2023.105626.

[23] McKay, M.P., Jackson, W.T., Hessler, A.M., 2018. Tectonic stress regime recorded by zircon Th/U. Gondwana Res. 57, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2018.01.004.

[24] Mišković A., Schaltegger, U., 2009. Crustal growth along a non-collisional cratonic margin: a Lu-Hf isotopic survey of the Eastern Cordilleran granitoids of Peru. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 279, 303-315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2009.01.002.

[25] Montel, J.M., 1993. A model for monazite/melt equilibrium and application to the generation of granitic magmas. Chem. Geol. 110, 127-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(93)90250-M.

[26] Morelli, R., Creaser, R.A., Seltmann, R.M., Stuart, F., Selb, D., Graupner, T., 2007. Age and source constraints for the giant Muruntau gold deposit, Uzbekistan, from coupled Re-Os-He isotopes in arsenopyrite. Geology 35, 795-798. https://doi.org/10.1130/G23521A.1.

[27] Müller, S., Schüler, L., Zech, A., Heße, F., 2022. GSTools v1.3: a toolbox for geostatistical modelling in Python. Geosci. Model Dev. 15, 3161-3182. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-3161-2022.

[28] Oliver, M.A., Webster, R., 1990. Kriging: a method of interpolation for geographical information systems. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci. 4, 313-332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02693799008941549.

[29] Ord, J.K., Getis, A., 1995. Local spatial autocorrelation statistics: Distributional issues and an application. Geogr. Anal. 27, 286-306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-4632.1995.tb00912.x.

[30] Palme, H., O’Neill, H.S.C., 2014. Cosmochemical estimates of mantle composition. In: Carlson R. (Ed.), Treatise of Geochemistry, 2nd edition. The Mantle and Core 3, pp. 1-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00201-1.

[31] Phillips, G.N., Evans, K.A., 2004. Role of CO₂ in the formation of gold deposits. Nature 429, 860-863. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02644.

[32] Phillips, G.N., Powell, R., 2009. Formation of gold deposits: Review and evaluation of the continuum model. Earth Sci. Rev. 94, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.02.002.

[33] Phillips, G.N., Powell, R., 2010. Formation of gold deposits: a metamorphic devolatilization model. J. Metamorph. Geol. 28, 689-718. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1314.2010.00887.x.

[34] Pineda, C., Schmitt, A.K., Morata, D., 2022. Monazite as a control on Th/U in magmatic zircon. Chem. Geol. 603, 120911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2022.120911.

[35] Pitcairn, I.K., Leventis, N., Beaudoin, G., Faure, S., Guilmette, C., Dubé B., 2021. A metasedimentary source of gold in Archean orogenic gold deposits. Geology 49, 862-866. https://doi.org/10.1130/G48587.1.

[36] Porter, T.M., 2006. The Tien Shan Belt: Golden heart of Central Asia. The Gangue 88, 4-5

[37] Rasmussen, B., Sheppard, S., Fletcher, I.R., 2006. Testing ore deposit models using in situ U-Pb geochronology of hydrothermal monazite: Paleoproterozoic gold mineralization in northern Australia. Geology 34, 77-80. https://doi.org/10.1130/G22058.1.

[38] Rey, S.J., Anselin, L., 2007. PySAL: a python library of spatial analytical methods. Rev. Reg. Stud. 37, 5-27 https://doi.org/10.52324/001c.8285.

[39] Şengör, A.M.C., Natal’in, B.A., Burtman, V.S., 1993. Evolution of the Altaid tectonic collage and Paleozoic crustal growth in Eurasia. Nature 364, 299-307. https://doi.org/10.1038/364299a0.

[40] Setianto, A., Triandini, T., 2013. Comparison of Kriging and Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation methods in lineament extraction and analysis. J. Appl. Geol. 5, 21-29 https://doi.org/10.22146/jag.7204.

[41] Stepanov, A.S., Hermann, J., Rubatto, D., Rapp, R.P., 2012. Experimental study of monazite/melt partitioning with implications for the REE, Th and U geochemistry of crustal rocks. Chem. Geol. 300-301, 200-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2012.01.007.

[42] Taylor, R.D., Graham, G.E., Lowers, H.A., 2024. Hydrothermal monazite and xenotime chemistry as genetic discriminators for intrusion-related and orogenic gold deposits: implications for an orogenic origin of the Pogo gold deposit, Alaska. Miner. Deposita 59, 949-967. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-023-01240-5.

[43] Tukey, J.W., 1977. Exploratory Data Analysis. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, p. 506.

[44] Virtanen, P., Gommers, R., Oliphant, T.E., Haberland, M., Reddy, T., Cournapeau, D., Burovski, E., Peterson, P., Weckesser, W., Bright, J., van der Walt, S.J., Brett, M., Wilson, J., Millman, K.J., Mayorov, N., Nelson, A.R.J., Jones, E., Kern, R., Larson, E., Carey, C.J., Polat, I., Feng, Y., Moore, E.W., VanderPlas, J., Laxalde, D., Perktold, J., Cimrman, R., Henriksen, I., Quintero, E.A., Harris, C.R., Archibald, A.M., Ribeiro, A.H., Pedregosa, F., van Mulbregt, P., Vijaykumar, A., Bardelli, A.P., Rothberg, A., Hilboll, A., Kloeckner, A., Scopatz, A., Lee, A., Rokem, A., Woods, C.N., Fulton, C., Masson, C., Häggström, C., Fitzgerald, C., Nicholson, D.A., Hagen, D.R., Pasechnik, D.V., Olivetti, E., Martin, E., Wieser, E., Silva, F., Lenders, F., Wilhelm, F., Young, G., Price, G.A., Ingold, G.L., Allen, G.E., Lee, G.R., Audren, H., Probst, I., Dietrich, J.P., Silterra, J., Webber, J.T., Slavič J., Nothman, J., Buchner, J., Kulick, J., Schönberger, J.L., de Miranda Cardoso, J.V., Reimer, J., Harrington, J., Rodríguez, J.L.C., Nunez-Iglesias, J., Kuczynski, J., Tritz, K., Thoma, M., Newville, M., Kümmerer, M., Bolingbroke, M., Tartre, M., Pak, M., Smith, N.J., Nowaczyk, N., Shebanov, N., Pavlyk, O., Brodtkorb, P.A., Lee, P., McGibbon, R.T., Feldbauer, R., Lewis, S., Tygier, S., Sievert, S., Vigna, S., Peterson, S., More, S., Pudlik, T., Oshima, T., Pingel, T.J., Robitaille, T.P., Spura, T., Jones, T.R., Cera, T., Leslie, T., Zito, T., Krauss, T., Upadhyay, U., Halchenko, Y.O., Vázquez-Baeza, Y., SciPy, C., 2020. SciPy 1.0: fundamental algorithms for scientific computing in Python. Nat. Methods 17, 261-272. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41592-019-0686-2.

[45] Wang, L.X., Huo, N., Jiang, G.Z., Han, C., Sun, J.X., Huang, H., 2023. Detrital zircon U-Pb and Hf isotopic dataset for the Central Asian Orogenic Belt, northern China. Geosci. Data J. 11, 426-432. https://doi.org/10.1002/gdj3.214.

[46] Wang, Q.F., Yang, L., Zhao, H.S., Groves, D.I., Weng, W.J., Xue, S.C., Li, H.J., Dong, C.Y., Yang, L.Q., Li, D.P., Deng, J., 2022. Towards a universal model for orogenic gold systems: a perspective based on Chinese examples with geodynamic, temporal, and deposit-scale structural and geochemical diversity. Earth Sci. Rev. 224, 103861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103861.

[47] Wang, W.L., Zhao, C.Y., Wu, Y.X., 2024. Spatial weighting — an effective incorporation of geological expertise into deep learning models. Geochemistry 84, 126212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemer.2024.126212.

[48] Wilde, A.R., Layer, P., Mernagh, T., Foster, J., 2001. The giant Muruntau gold deposit: Geologic, geochronologic, and fluid inclusion constraints on ore genesis. Econ. Geol. 96, 633-644. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.96.3.633.

[49] Wilhem, C., Windley, B.F., Stampfli, G.M., 2012. The Altaids of Central Asia: a tectonic and evolutionary innovative review. Earth Sci. Rev. 113, 303-341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.04.001.

[50] Williams-Jones, A.E., Bowell, R.J., Migdisov, A.A., 2009. Gold in solution. Elements 5, 281-287. https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.5.5.281.

[51] Windley, B.F., Alexeiev, D., Xiao, W.J., Kröner, A., Badarch, G., 2007. Tectonic models for accretion of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. J. Geol. Soc. 164, 31-47. https://doi.org/10.1144/0016-76492006-022.

[52] Wu, C., Chen, H.Y., Lu, Y.J., 2022. Crustal structure control on porphyry copper systems in accretionary orogens: insights from Nd isotopic mapping in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. Miner. Deposita 57, 631-641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00126-021-01074-z.

[53] Wu, C., Chen, H.Y., Chiaradia, M., Huangfu, P.P., Li, Z.H., 2023. Linking Pacific Plate formation and Early Cretaceous metallogenic response on the circum-Pacific continental margins. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 136, 171-183. https://doi.org/10.1130/B36717.1.

[54] Wu, Y.B., Zheng, Y.F., 2004. Genesis of zircon and its constraints on interpretation of U-Pb age. Chin. Sci. Bull. 16, 1589-1604.

[55] Xiao, W.J., Han, C.M., Yuan, C., Sun, M., Lin, S.F., Chen, H.L., Li, Z.L., Li, J.L., Sun, S., 2008. Middle Cambrian to Permian subduction-related accretionary orogenesis of Northern Xinjiang, NW China: Implications for the tectonic evolution of central Asia. J. Asian Earth Sci. 32, 102-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2007.10.008.

[56] Xiao, W.J., Windley, B.F., Sun, S., Li, J.L., Huang, B.C., Han, C.M., Yuan, C., Sun, M., Chen, H.L., 2015. A tale of amalgamation of three Permo-Triassic collage systems in Central Asia: Oroclines, sutures, and terminal accretion. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 43, 477-507. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-060614-105254.

[57] Xie, W., Lu, Y., Chen, L.M., Song, X.Y., Deng, Y.F., Zhao, Y., 2022. Zircon Th/U ratios suggest a post-collision extensional setting for the Permian Ni-Cu sulfide deposits in the Eastern Tianshan, NW China. Ore Geol. Rev. 144, 104837. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2022.104837.

[58] Xue, C.J., Zhao, X.B., Zhao, Y., Zhao, W.C., Mo, X.X., Xiao, W.J., Ma, H.D., Zhu, B.Y., Nikolay, P., BakhtIar, N., Deng, J., Hou, Z.Q., 2024. Early Permian Au-Ni major metallogenic events in western Central asian metallogenic domain. Mineral. Depos. 43, 749-784 https://doi.org/10.16111/j.0258-7106.2024.04.003.in Chinese with English abstract).

[59] Yakymchuk, C., Kirkland, C.L., Clark, C., 2018. Th/U ratios in metamorphic zircon. J. Metamorph. Geol. 36, 715-737. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmg.12307.

[60] Zhang, H.D., Liu, J.C., Fayek, M., 2021. Multistage mineralization in the Haoyaoerhudong gold deposit, Central Asian Orogenic Belt: Constraints from the sedimentary-diagenetic and hydrothermal sulfides and gold. Geosci. Front. 12, 587-604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.08.003.

[61] Zhang, Z.M., Zeng, Q.D., Pan, T., Xie, H.L., Wei, Z.H., Fan, H.R., Wu, J.J., Yang, K.F., Li, X.H., Liang, G.Z., 2022. Two epochs of mineralization of orogenic gold deposit in the East Kunlun Orogenic Belt: Constraints from monazite U-Pb Age, in situ sulfide trace elements and sulfur isotopes in Wulonggou Gold Field. Minerals 12, 968. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12080968.

[62] Zheng, J.H., Shen, P., Feng, W.Y., 2022. Hydrothermal monazite trumps rutile: applying U-Pb geochronology to evaluate complex mineralization ages of the Katbasu Au-Cu deposit, Western Tianshan, Northwest China. Am. Mineral. 107, 1201-1215. https://doi.org/10.2138/am-2022-8080.

[63] Zhong, R.C., Brugger, J., Tomkins, A.G., Chen, Y.J., Li, W.B., 2015. Fate of gold and base metals during metamorphic devolatilization of a pelite. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 171, 338-352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2015.09.013.