Lithium: A review of applications, occurrence, exploration, extraction, recycling, analysis, and environmental impact

Abstract

The energy transition challenges faced by modern civilization have significantly enhanced the demand for critical metals like lithium resulting in improved methods to explore, extract, and utilize these metals. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the different types of lithium resources, factors, and mechanisms controlling lithium enrichment in various geological settings including terrestrial and marine environments. Diverse exploration strategies including geological, geophysical, mineralogical, geochemical, and remote sensing techniques including drone-based techniques for lithium exploration studies in different terranes are summarized. An overview of the mining techniques, including beneficiation and extraction, and their principles, mechanisms, operations, and comparison of the various approaches and compatibility with different types of lithium deposits for obtaining maximum yield are evaluated. Lithium isotopic studies are useful in understanding geological processes such as past weathering events and riverine input into the oceans, as well as in understanding the source of lithium in diverse types of deposits. We also highlight the recent developments in other areas such as recycling, environmental impact, and state-of-the-art analytical techniques for determining lithium in different lithium ore deposits and other geological materials. Our overview provides the latest developments and insights in the various sectors related to lithium and prompt further developments to meet the growing demand for this valuable metal as the world transforms to clean energy.

Keywords

Lithium minerals / Pegmatite / Lithium brine deposits / Lithium sedimentary deposits / Exploration techniques

CRediT authorship contribution statement

V. Balaram: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Data curation, Conceptualization. M. Santosh: Writing – original draft, Data curation. M. Satyanarayanan: Writing – original draft, Data curation. N. Srinivas: Writing – original draft, Data curation. Harish Gupta: Writing – original draft, Data curation.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

Dr. V. Balaram and Dr. M. Satyanarayanan would like to acknowledge the support of Dr. Prakash Kumar, Director, CSIR-National Geophysical Research, Hyderabad, India. Prof. N. Srinivas acknowledges the support and encouragement from the Vice-Chancellor of GITAM University, Visakhapatnam, India. Prof. Harish Gupta thanks the Vice-Chancellor, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India. We thank the handling editor and two anonymous referees for their constructive comments.

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