Evaluating the effectiveness of the Shan-Shui Initiatives in China

Abstract

The Shan-Shui Initiative has attracted global attention in massively contained ecological deterioration and restored millions of hectares of land in China. There are high hopes for this new combination of protection, restoration, and management of ecosystems, its overall benefits, however, remain uncertain. Here, we employed ecosystem service (ES) indicators to quantitatively evaluate the effectiveness of all pilot projects since 2016 at the national scale. Results show that after the implementation of Shan-Shui Initiative, ES have significantly improved, with increases in water yield (14.3 %), carbon sequestration (13.7 %), soil conservation (6.5 %), windbreak sand fixation (5.0 %), and habitat quality (0.7 %). The changes in ES were driven by both the Shan-Shui Initiative and climate change. Projects with longer implementation periods showed a more pronounced trend of growth in ESs, particularly evident in the ecological space. The spillover effects were widely present and the prevalence of positive spillover effects was notably greater than that of negative ones. Furthermore, the diverse interventions implemented in the Shan-Shui project had varying impacts on ES across different regions. Overall, these interventions showed a positive influence on ESs, although the degree of trade-off showed a south-high and north-low pattern. This highlights the necessity for ecological restoration efforts to carefully consider regional differences. This study may provide policy guidance for optimizing the layout and sustainable management of Shan-Shui ecological restoration projects.

Keywords

Shan-Shui Initiative / Ecosystem services / Ecological restoration / Effectiveness evaluation

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Yutong Jiang: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation. Xinghao Shan: Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation. Qingyu Liu: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Formal analysis, Data curation. Yu Feng: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Yuyang Lai: Formal analysis, Data curation. Kaiji Xu: Writing – original draft. Jinman Wang: Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization. Zhongke Bai: Supervision, Project administration. Xiaoming Feng: Supervision, Project administration.

Declaration of competing interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2022YFF1303205) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 2652022005).

Supplementary materials

Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.geosus.2025.100271.

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