Indexing habitat suitability and human-elephant conflicts using GIS-MCDA in a human-dominated landscape

Abstract

Concerns for biodiversity loss, wildlife conservation, and habitat destruction have dominated the policy agenda worldwide for decades. Unsustainable human-induced development and negative interaction between humans and wildlife have emerged as predominant issues globally. The present study deals with human and elephant conflicts (HEC) in the Polpitigama Divisional Secretariat, Sri Lanka, which is located in the Kahalla-Pallekele elephant corridor and connects Wilpattu and Kaudulla wildlife sanctuaries. The research objectives are identifying spatial patterns of elephant habitat suitability and probable risk zones for HEC. The elephant habitat suitability and HEC risk zones were identified on spatial and temporal scales using Geographic Information System integrating Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis. Different factors, including habitat suitability, distance to roads, distance to croplands, distance to forests and protected areas, settlements, and population density, were considered to determine HEC risk zones in the area. Topography, water, and vegetation criteria are considered when determining elephant habitat suitability. The results of the Analytic Hierarchy Process run the spatially explicit model. The results revealed that of the total area, 15.3% is very highly suitable for elephant habitats, while the least suitable areas contribute only 4%. About 33.8% of the area is moderately suitable for elephants. The risk map indicates that 23.7% of the total area is under very high risk for HEC, and the least risk areas only account for 5.4%. About 26.2% of the area falls under the moderate risk zone for HEC. Since the model considered three aspects of HEC, it will help policymakers in wildlife conservation to avoid and minimize the HEC.

Keywords

Analytic hierarchy process / Geographic information system / Human-elephant conflict / Multi-criteria decision analysis / Polpitigama

Ethical statement

Ethical approval was not required for this study since human participants were ensured following local legislation and institutional requirements. All proceeds of this research were carried out following the Helsinki Declaration principles of human subject investigation. Participation in this survey was anonymous and voluntary, assuring consent of prospective respondents before participation. Data accumulated for this research was treated confidentially.

Declaration of Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the reviewers for their constructive comments on developing the manuscript and are grateful to Mr. Saman Gunasinghe, Deputy Director (planning), DS office, Polpitigama, and officials of the Department of wildlife conservation (Kahalla-Pallekele), who provided supplementary data relevant to the study. Special thanks go to all experts who supported the questionnaire survey and Mr. Saman Kumara who helped in collecting field data related to HEC occurrences.

Supplementary materials

Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.geosus.2023.08.004.

References

[1] Acharya, A, Mondal, B. K., Bhadra, T, Abdelrahman, K, Mishra, P. K., Tiwari, A., 2022. Geospatial analysis of geo-ecotourism site suitability using AHP and GIS for sustainable and resilient tourism planning in West Bengal, India. Sustainability 14(4), 2422.

[2] Adem Esmail, B, Geneletti, D., 2018. Multi-criteria decision analysis for nature conservation: A review of 20 years of applications. Methods Ecol. Evol., 9, 42-53.

[3] Ahmed, R, Saikia, A, Robeson, S. M., 2022. Tracks of death: Elephant casualties along the Habaipur–Diphu Railway in Assam, India. Ann. Am. Assoc. Geogr., 112(6), 1553-1575.

[4] Areendran, G, Raj, K, Mazumsar, S, Munsi, M, Govil, H, Sen, P. K., 2011. Geospatial modelling to assess elephant habitat suitability and corridors in northern Chhattisgarh. India. Trop. Ecol., 52(3), 275-283.

[5] Babu, S, Singh, S, Goyal, S. P., Shruti, M., 2018. Assessing spatio–temporal pattern of man–elephant conflict in Rajaji – Corbett landscape, a part of Shiwalik Hills. 3rd International Conference for Convergence in Technology (I2CT), Pune, India,

[6] Bamrungkhul, S, Tanaka, T., 2022. The assessment of land suitability for urban development in the anticipated rapid urbanization area from the Belt and Road Initiative: A case study of Nong Khai City, Thailand. Sustain. Cities Soc., 83, 103988.

[7] Baskaran, N, Kannan, G, Anbarasan, U, Thapa, A, Sukumar, R., 2013. A landscape-level assessment of Asian elephant habitat, its population and elephant–human conflict in the Annamalai hill ranges of southern Western Ghats, India. Mamm. Biol., 78, 470-481.

[8] Campos-Arceiz, A, Takatsuki, S, Ekanayaka, S. K., Hasegawa, T., 2009. The human-elephant conflict in southeastern Sri Lanka: Type of damage, seasonal patterns, and sexual differences in the raiding behavior of elephants. Gajah 31, 5-14.

[9] Chen, Y, Marino, J, Chen, Y, Tao, Q, Sullivan, C. D., Shi, K, Macdonald, D. W., 2016. Predicting hotspots of human-elephant conflict to inform mitigation strategies in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China. PLoS ONE 11(9), 0162035.

[10] Chiranjib, N, Ranjan, R, Tamal, T. R., 2022. Human elephant conflict in changing land-use land-cover scenario in and adjoining region of Buxa tiger reserve, India. Environ. Chall., 7, 100384.

[11] de Figueiredo, C. J. J., de Miranda Mota, C. M. D., de Araújo, K. G. D. D., Rosa, A. G. F., de Souza, A. P. G., 2022. Measuring COVID-19 vulnerability for northeast Brazilian municipalities: Social, economic, and demographic factors based on multiple criteria and spatial analysis. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 11(8), 449.

[12] de Knegt, H. J., van Langevelde, F, Skidmore, A. K., Delsink, A, Slotow, R, Henley, S, Bucini, G, de Boer, W. F., Coughenour, M. B., Grant, C. C., Heitkönig, I. M., Henley, M, Knox, N. M., Kohi, E. M., Mwakiwa, E, Page, B. R., Peel, M, Pretorius, Y, van Wieren, S. E., Prins, H. H., 2011. The spatial scaling of habitat selection by African elephants. J. Anim. Ecol., 80, 270-281.

[13] de la Torre, J. A., Wong, E. P., Lechner, A. M., Zulaikha, N, Zawawi, A, Abdul-Patah, P, Saaban, S, Goossens, B, Campos-Arceiz, A., 2021. There will be conflict – Agricultural landscapes are prime, rather than marginal, habitats for Asian elephants. Anim. Conserv., 24, 720-732.

[14] Dela, J. S. 2014. An update on biodiversity status, trends and threats and implications for human well-being. H.M. Bandarathilake (Ed.), Sri Lanka's Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Biodiversity Secretariat. Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy, pp.2-43.

[15] Edirisooriya, K. V. D., Bandara, A. P. S. S., 2022. Human-elephant conflict and mitigation methods using participatory rural appraisal techniques: A case study of Kuda Bellankadawala and Kelegama Grama Niladari Divisions in Thambuttegama Divisional Secretariat Division. Sri Lanka J. Soc. Sci. Hum., 2(1), 105-115.

[16] Ekanayake, S. K. K., Campos-Arceiz, A, Rupasinghe, M, Pastorini, J, Fernando, P., 2011. Patterns of crop raiding by Asian elephants in a human dominated landscape in southeastern Sri Lanka. Gajah 34, 20-25.

[17] Fernando, P, Wickramanayake, E, Weerakoon, D, Jayasinghe, L. K. A., Gunawardene, M, Janaka, H. K., 2005. Perceptions and patterns in human-elephant conflict in old and new settlements in Sri Lanka: Insights for mitigation and management. Biodiv. Conserv., 14, 2465-2481.

[18] Fernando, P, Jayawardene, J, Prasad, T. W., Hendavitharana, W, Pastorini, J., 2011. Current status of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. Gajah 35, 93-103.

[19] Fernando, P., 1997. Keeping jumbo afloat: Is translocation an answer to the human-elephant conflict?. Sri Lanka Nat., 1, 4-12.

[20] Fernando, P., 2015. Managing elephants in Sri Lanka: Where we are and where we need to be. Cey. J. Sci., 44(1), 1-11.

[21] Frenando, P, De silva, M. K. C. R., Jayasinghe, L. K. A., Janaka, H. K., Pastornie, J., 2018. First country-wide survey of the Endangered Asian elephant: Towards better conservation and management in Sri Lanka. Oryx 55(1), 46-55.

[22] Greene, R, Devillers, R, Luther, J. E., Eddy, B. G., 2011. GIS-based multiple-criteria decision analysis. Geogr. Compass., 5(6), 412-432.

[23] Haturusinghe, H. S., Weerakoon, D. K., 2012. Crop raiding behaviour of elephants in the northwestern region of Sri Lanka. Gajah 36, 26-31.

[24] Hazarika, R, Saikia, A., 2013. The pachyderm and the pixel: An assessment of elephant habitat suitability in Sonitpur, India. Int J. Remote Sens., 34(15), 5317-5330.

[25] IUCN/SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group, 2017. Asian Elephant Range States Meeting: Final Report. The IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) Technical report.

[26] Jackson, S., 1990. The Asian Elephant: An Action Plan for Its Conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

[27] Jayasinghe, A, Withanage, W., 2020. A geographical information system-based multi-criteria decision analysis of potato cultivation land suitability in Welimada divisional secretariat, Sri Lanka. Potato J., 47(2), 126-134.

[28] Köpke, S, Withanachchi, S. S., Pathiranage, R, Withanachchi, C. R., Gamage, D. U., Nissanka, T. S., Warapitiya, C. C., Nissanka, B. M., Ranasinghe, N. N., Senarathna, C. D., Schleyer, C, Thiel, A., 2021. Human–elephant conflict in Sri Lanka: A critical review of causal explanations. Sustainability 13(15), 8625.

[29] Khanal, B., 2022. Using machine learning to predict the risk of human-elephant conflict in the Nepal-India Transboundary Region.. thesis, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

[30] Kitratporn, N, Takeuchi, W., 2019. Spatiotemporal distribution of human–elephant conflict in eastern Thailand: A model-based assessment using news reports and remotely sensed data. Remote Sens., 12, 90.

[31] LaDue, C. A., Farinelli, S. M., Eranda, I, Jayasinghe, C, Vandercone, R. P. G., 2021. The influence of habitat changes on elephant mortality associated with human-elephant conflict: Identifying areas of concern in the north central dry zone of Sri Lanka. Sustainability 13, 13707.

[32] Lande, F., 2000. Moleculargenetic and behavioral analysis of social organization in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 48(1), 84-91.

[33] Li, W, Liu, P, Guo, X, Wang, L, Wang, Q, Yu, Y, Dai, Y, Li, L, Zhang, L., 2018. Human-elephant conflict in Xishuangbanna Prefecture, China: Distribution, diffusion, and mitigation. Glob. Ecol. Conserv., 16, 00462.

[34] Li, W, Yu, Y, Liu, P, Tang, R, Dai, Y, Li, L, Zhang, L., 2019. Identifying climate refugia and its potential impact on small population of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in China. Glob. Ecol. Conserv., 19, e00664.

[35] Malczewski, J., 2006. GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis: A survey of the literature. Int. J. Geogr. Inf., 20(7), 703-726.

[36] Malliyawadu, R.N., Withanage, N.C., 2023. A GIS-based framework for flood hazard vulnerability evaluation in Thudawa area, Sri Lanka. Int. J. Inf. Decis. Sci.. https://www.inderscience.com/info/ingeneral/forthcoming.php?jcode = ijids.

[37] Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment, 2017. Kahalle-Pallekele Protected Area Management Plan. 2017–2022. Colombo, Sri Lanka.

[38] Mishra, P. K., Rai, A., 2021. Role of unmanned aerial systems for natural resource management. J. Indian Soc. Remote. Sens., 49(3), 671-679.

[39] Mishra, P. K., Rai, A, Rai, S. C., 2020. Land use and land cover change detection using geospatial techniques in Sikkim Himalaya, India. Egypt. J. Remote. Sens. Space Sci., 23(2), 133-143.

[40] Mishra, V, Avtar, R, Prathiba, A. P., Mishra, P. K., Tiwari, A, Sharma, S. K., Singh, C. H., Yadav, B. C., Jain, K., 2023. Uncrewed aerial systems in water resource management and monitoring: A review of sensors, applications, software, and issues. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2023, Article 3544724

[41] Mohd Taher, T, Lihan, T, Tajul Arifin, N. A., Khodri, N. F., Ahmad Mustapha, M, Abdul Patah, P, Razali, S. H. A., Mohd Nor, S., 2021. Characteristic of habitat suitability for the Asian elephant in the fragmented Ulu Jelai Forest Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. Trop. Ecol., 62, 347-358.

[42] Mondal, B. K., Sahoo, S, Das, R, Mishra, P. K., Abdelrahman, K, Acharya, A, Lee, M. A., Tiwari, A, Fanis, M. S., 2022. Assessing groundwater dynamics and potentiality in the Lower Ganga Plain, India. Water 14(14), 2180.

[43] Mondal, B. K., Kumari, S, Ghosh, A, Mishra, P. K., 2022. Transformation and risk assessment of the East Kolkata Wetlands (India) using fuzzy MCDM method and geospatial technology. Geogr. Sustain., 3(3), 191-203.

[44] Naha, D, Sathyakumar, S, Dash, S, Chettri, A, Rawat, G. S., 2019. Assessment and prediction of spatial patterns of human-elephant conflicts in changing land cover scenarios of a human-dominated landscape in North Bengal. PLoS ONE 14, e0210580.

[45] Palei, N. C., Rath, B. P., Kar, C. S., 2013. Human-elephants conflicts in Sambalpur Elephant Reserve, Odisha, India. Gajah 39, 34-36.

[46] Pastorini, J, Nishantha, H. G., Janaka, H. K., Isler, K, Fernando, P., 2010. Water-body use by Asian elephants in Southern Sri Lanka. Trop. Conserv. Sci., 3(4), 412-422.

[47] Perera, B. M. A. O., 2009. The human-elephant conflict: A review of current status and mitigation methods. Gajah 30, 41-52.

[48] Prakash, T. G. S. L., Wijeratne, A. W., Fernando, P., 2020. Human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka: Patterns and extent. Gajah 51, 16-25.

[49] Prasad, G, Shiny, R, Reghunath, R, Prasannakumar, V., 2011. A GIS based spatial prediction model for human-elephant conflicts (HEC). Wildl. Biol. Pract., 7(2), 30-40.

[50] Ram, A. K., Yadav, N. K., Subedi, N, Pandav, B, Mondol, S, Khanal, B, Kharal, D. K., Acharya, H. B., Dhakal, B. K., Acharya, K. P., Baral, H. S., Dahal, B. R., Mishra, R, Naha, D, Pradhan, N. M. B., Natarajan, L, Lamihhane, B. R., 2022. Landscape predictors of human elephant conflicts in Chure Terai Madhesh Landscape of Nepal. Environ. Chall., 7, 100458.

[51] Rangarajan, M, Desai, A, Sukumar, R, Easa, P, Menon, V, Vincent, S, Ganguly, S, Talukdar, B. K., Singh, B, Mudappa, D, Chowdhary, S, Prasad, A., 2010. Gajah: Securing the Future for Elephants in India. The Report of the Elephant Task Force. Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi, India

[52] Rathnayake, C. W. M., Jones, S, Berelov, M. S., Wallace, L., 2022. Assessing protected area networks in the conservation of elephants (Elephas Maximus) in Sri Lanka. Environ. Chall., 9, 100625.

[53] Rathnayake, C. W. M., Jones, S, Berelov, M. S., Wallace, L., 2022. Man– elephant conflict and land cover change in Sri Lanka. Appl. Geogr., 143, 102685.

[54] Saaty, T. L., 1990. Multi-Criteria Decision Making – The Analytic Hierarchy Process. RWS Publication, Ellsworth Avenue, USA

[55] Saha, A, Roy, R., 2021. An integrated approach to identify suitable areas for built-up development using GIS-based multi-criteria analysis and AHP in Siliguri planning area, India. SN Appl. Sci., 3, 395.

[56] Sanare, J. E., Valli, D, Leweri, C, Glatzer, G, Fishlock, V, Treydte, A. C., 2022. A socio-ecological approach to understanding how land use challenges human-elephant coexistence in northern Tanzania. Diversity 14(7), 513.

[57] Santiapillai, C, Wijeyamohan, S, Bandara, G, Athurupana, R, Dissanayake, N, Read, B., 2010. An assessment of the human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka. Cey. J. Sci., 39(1), 21-33.

[58] Shaffer, M. J., Bishop, J. A., 2016. Predicting and preventing elephant poaching incidents through statistical analysis, GIS-based risk analysis, and aerial surveillance flight path modeling. Trop. Conserv. Sci., 9(1), 525-548.

[59] Sitati, N. W., Walpole, M. J., Smith, R. J., Leader-Williams, N., 2003. Predicting spatial aspects of human-elephant conflict. J. Appl. Ecol., 40(4), 667-677.

[60] Sukumar, R., 1989. Ecology of the Asian elephant in southern India. I. Movement and habitat utilization patterns. J. Trop. Ecol., 5(1), 1-18.

[61] Sulistiyono, N, Iqbal, M, Patana, P, Purwoko, A., 2019. Spatial modeling of conflict vulnerability of Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) with humans in Besitang. IOP Conf. Ser., 374(1), 012030.

[62] Thant, Z. M., May, R, Røskaft, E., 2021. Pattern and distribution of human-elephant conflicts in three conflict-prone landscapes in Myanmar. Glob. Ecol. Conserv., 25, e014111.

[63] Thant, Z. M., Leimgruber, P, Amirtharaj, C. W., Zaw, M. O., Røskaft, E, May, R., 2023. Factors influencing the habitat suitability of wild Asian elephants and their implications for human–elephant conflict in Myanmar. Glob. Ecol. Conserv., 43, e02468.

[64] Tripathy, B. R., Liu, X, Songer, M, Kumar, L, Kaliraj, S, Chatterjee, N. D., Wickramasinghe, W. M. S., Mahanta, K. K., 2021. Descriptive spatial analysis of human-elephant conflict (HEC) distribution and mapping HEC hotspots in Keonjhar Forest Division, India. Front. Ecol. Evol., 9, 640624.

[65] Van de Water, A, Matteson, K., 2018. Human-elephant conflict in western Thailand: Socio-economic drivers and potential mitigation strategies. PLoS ONE 13(6), e0194736.

[66] Weerakoon, D. K., Gunawardene, M. D., Janaka, H. K., Jayasinghe, L. K. A., Perera, R. A. R., Fernando, P, Wickramnayake, E., 2003. Ranging behaviour and habitat use of elephants in Sri Lanka. J. Jayawardena (Ed.), Endangered Elephants, Past, Present, and Future. Proceedings of the Symposium on Human Elephant Relationships and Conflicts, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Biodiversity and Conservation Trust, p. 228

[67] Wijesinghe, W. M. D. C., Mishra, P. K., Tripathi, S, Abdelrahman, K, Tiwari, A, Fnais, M. S., 2023. Integrated flood hazard vulnerability modeling of Neluwa (Sri Lanka) using analytical hierarchy process and geospatial techniques. Water 15, 1212.

[68] Williams, A. C., Johnisingh, A. J. T., Krausman, P. R., Qureshi, Q., 2008. Ranging and habitat selection by Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Rajaji National Park, North West India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105, 145-155.

[69] Wilson, S, Davies, T. E., Hazarika, N, Zimmerman, A., 2013. Understanding spatial and temporal patterns of human–elephant conflict in Assam, India. Oryx 49(1), 140-149.

[70] Withanage, W. K. N. C., 2023. A GIS-multi-criteria decision analysis to find suitable sites for residential development: A case from Kandy MC, Sri Lanka. Int. J. Spat. Temporal Multimed. Inf. Syst

[71] Yang, N, Dai, X, Wang, B, Wen, M, Gan, Z, Li, Z, Duffy, K. J., 2023. Mapping potential human-elephant conflict hotspots with UAV monitoring data. Glob. Ecol. Conserv., 43, e02451.