Liquefaction vulnerability across seismic zones of India: A critical review of geohazard risk

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive review of earthquake-induced soil liquefaction hazards across various re- gions of India, emphasizing their connection with major seismic geohazards. India, with a population of approximately 1.45 billion, is characterized by a diverse geological and geotectonic setup and heightened seismicity in the subcontinent, necessitating robust construction techniques for long-term preparedness and mitigation for any impending earthquakes. This study systematically compiles and evaluates liquefaction sus- ceptibility across pan-India through different zones, including northern, southern, eastern, western, and north- eastern regions, in accordance with the four seismic zones of India. The data of standard penetration test (SPT) and cone penetration test (CPT) have been employed as the primary geotechnical methods to assess liquefaction potential, supported by geophysical tests and field observations. The factor of safety (FOS) was calculated to determine the severity of liquefaction susceptibility. In the north zone, areas like Srinagar show high liquefaction potential, especially near water bodies, while Chandigarh exhibits low susceptibility. The south zone's Chennai displays severe liquefaction risk along its eastern coastal parts, whereas south-western areas remain relatively safe. The east zone, particularly Bihar, is highly vulnerable, with districts like Darbhanga experiencing severe liquefaction due to frequent seismic activity. In the north-east zone, Guwahati, located in seismic zone V, shows high susceptibility, exacerbated by its proximity to the Brahmaputra River. The north-west zone's Kutch region in Gujarat is notably susceptible due to past seismic events and loose sandy soils, while urban areas like Mumbai show lower risk due to deeper bedrock conditions. Overall, Seismic Zone II, including regions in south and parts of the west zone, is identified as the safest, while seismic zone V, particularly in the northeast, north, and parts of the west, is most at risk. The findings underscore the urgency of assessing liquefaction as a critical seismic geohazard, necessitating robust soil testing, disaster-resilient infrastructure, and ground improvement techniques in vulnerable zones.

Keywords

Liquefaction potentiall / Seismic vulnerability / Standard penetration test / Factor of safety

RediT authorship contribution statement

Ibraheem Rais: Writing - original draft, Resources. Md Rehan Sadique: Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Investigation, Data curation. Mohd Masroor Alam: Writing - review & editing, Resources, Formal analysis.

Declaration of competing interest

All authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the Department of Civil Engi- neering, Zakir Hussain College of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh

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