This paper addresses the tension between standardized planning and vernacular adaptability in the unified development of rural communities in China. Drawing on case analyses of community open-design models and rule-based computational design approaches, it proposes the “Unconventional Village” design model. Grounded in the shape grammar theory, this model develops a multi-level rule system by integrating diverse computational design methods across two scales: community planning and residential buildings. This framework enables the generation of compact rural community planning solutions that reconcile standardization with local adaptability. Taking the newly constructed mass housing community in Shanli Chenjia Village, Zhaoyuan, China as an experiment, the model produces diverse planning layouts that harmonize with the village’s vernacular character. The study reveals the following findings: (1) Technically, the model is compatible with multiple software toolchains, offering a reusable methodological framework for rural community planning; (2) In community planning, it achieves a balanced integration of standardized design and traditional vernacular preservation, providing an expandable solution to the homogenization challenges in rural community planning while advancing both theoretical understanding and practical applications of computational design in complex regional contexts; (3) At the residential building, the model enables residents to independently select functional modules, effectively addressing diverse household needs.
A transit-oriented development (TOD) pattern important for alleviating urban traffic congestion and enhancing the intensive use of land. It is also a key factor for promoting the sustainable development of urban tourism and public transportation. Exploring the relationship between the TOD pattern and urban tourism is conducive to fostering positive interactions between public transportation infrastructure and the growth of urban tourism. Accordingly, an analytical human-scale-based TOD urban tourism vitality (TOD-UTV) framework is proposed to examine the impact of the TOD pattern on urban tourism in Nanjing, China, from the perspectives of land use and urban morphology. The results indicate that merely pursuing a high land development intensity in TOD areas does not effectively enhance tourism vitality. Instead, optimizing land function allocation according to the local tourism industry and adopting moderately differentiated functional distribution principles are effective strategies for promoting urban tourism vitality. Additionally, optimizing TOD spaces through appropriate design techniques, controlling their density, and developing commercial spaces around tourism resources are essential for enhancing the overall attractiveness of TOD areas to tourists. This study provides a novel framework for evaluating how the TOD pattern can promote urban tourism development, offers theoretical support for exploring the relationship between urban tourism and public transportation at the human scale, and provides insights into fostering positive interactions between TOD planning and urban tourism development.
In view of the characteristics of small scale and sparse distribution of Xizang border settlements, and the weak ability of suitability inheritance of traditional construction experience, the concept of human settlements unit of border settlements is proposed. Taking Kejia Village as an example, based on historical satellite images, field survey, and ethnography, this paper analyzes the characteristics of its construction experience, analyzes its evolution mode and influencing factors, and reveals the inheritance mechanism of the construction wisdom, aiming to provide a basis for relevant research and practice. The study found that the spatial gene of Kejia Village is the result of comprehensive adaptation to ecology, culture and society, which is embodied in five aspects: landscape pattern, human pattern, settlement structure, road structure, and architectural space. In the process of superposition from one-way dominance to two-way intervention and then to multi-level symbiosis, new genes coexist with old genes through functional partitioning and technical substitution. Through the inheritance of core spatial structure and spatial order, technological upgrading and material iteration, the maintenance of social and cultural elements, the dynamic adaptation of human settlement construction and ecology, the inheritance of construction wisdom and the inheritance of settlement human settlement unit community are realized.
This study reconsiders the evolving relationship between architects and computational systems in the context of increasingly embedded digital and intelligent technologies. Rather than focusing only on what tools can do, it looks at how tool-making itself helps reshape how architects think and work. Through four web-based generative design applications―SIMForms, ANYSite, NEXUSpace, and FLEXUrban―this paper investigates how architects engage with computation not only as tool users, but also as developers of generative algorithms, and organizers of workflows. Based on these cases, the paper proposes a framework of three interrelated mechanisms of human-computer collaboration: reconstructing intuitive media, adopting algorithmic design thinking, and organizing programmable design systems. The framework aims to provide a conceptual foundation for reimagining how architects can stay actively involved in shaping the tools and processes that define digital design today.
This study proposes Architectural Style Metrics (ASM), a CLIP (Contrastive Language-Image Pre-training)-based methodology for quantification of architectural design’s visual characteristics. To address the subjectivity and inefficiency of traditional architectural design analysis methods, ASM quantifies four visual features―curvature, saturation, transparency, and symmetry―by their relative positions between opposing states, generating comprehensive metrics including means, standard deviations, and feature outliers. The effectiveness of the methodology was validated through single/multi-image quantification and clustering analysis. The quantification consistently reflected perceptual visual characteristics, while clustering―based on a quantitative database of approximately 9000 images constructed in this study―yielded meaningful groupings with an average silhouette score above 0.5. The study further explores potential applications through the demonstration of ASM-based evaluation approaches for systematic analysis of architectural designs, among which classification achieved an accuracy of 87.2%. ASM offers interpretable and objective results without additional training or strict image constraints, enabling broad applicability. These results demonstrate ASM’s potential as a consistent and scalable methodology for data-driven design analysis.
The traditional built environments are inevitably affected by globalization and digitalization, with homogenization gradually becoming their hallmark. Perception studies can enhance the understanding of the interaction between human and the environment, and there is a growing interest in user-generated content, particularly visual data like photographs. However, current photo analysis often lacks deeper insights, potentially leading to an incomplete understanding of perception. This study analyzes tourist photographs from two historic water towns in Shanghai, integrating depth estimation with semantic segmentation to rethink the perceptions of these environments. The results of semantic segmentation indicate that at the element level, perceptions of the two towns show no significant differences. In contrast, depth estimation reveals spatial differences in perceptions between the towns. Correlation analysis further demonstrates that, although similar elements are observed, they are perceived in distinct spatial contexts within the two towns. These findings provide valuable insights into the preservation and design of traditional built environments, suggesting that the notion of homogenization does not hold. Future efforts in the design and conservation of traditional environments should prioritize essence over appearance.
The sorption isotherm of porous building materials serves as a critical hygrothermal property that regulates coupled heat and moisture transfer and influences the energy efficiency of building envelopes. Coastal buildings endure chronic salt spray exposure, yet classical fitting equations neglect salt deposition effects. This study investigates cement mortar specimens subjected to accelerated salt spray tests (0–35 cycles). The salt content of the specimens was quantified via chloride ion analysis, and isothermal sorption tests were conducted under 33%–93% relative humidity (RH) using a static equilibrium method. A modified model integrating a salt influence factor (ηu) into classical equations was developed. Additionally, dual-regime sorption isotherm models were formulated based on deliquescence mechanisms of salt crystals above critical humidity, governed by the Robinson equation and Nielsen model, respectively. This framework enables accurate prediction of equilibrium moisture content under varying coupled humidity-salt conditions, significantly enhancing the reliability of hygrothermal simulations for coastal buildings in salt spray climates.
The types of architectural plan determine the overall style of a building and the efficiency of its internal functions, making it one of the core issues in architectural research. Previous research on basic architectural plan types has mainly relied on personal experience and historical cases, which lack a unified logic and systematization. This study aims to rededuce the basic types of architectural plan, exploring a basic plan library and a preliminary evaluation method based on a logical approach. The basic plan types are divided into regular polygon system and grid system, and a library containing 18 basic plan types is established based on the two systems, and more complex forms can be generated by combining the basic types. A preliminary evaluation method for the characteristics of basic plan types has been established using indicators including concentration, symmetry, and complexity. The universality of the 18 basic plan types is demonstrated through classic cases of historical and modern buildings. Compared with traditional studies, the basic plan type library proposed in this study is more logical and systematic, which can provide effective support for the design and analysis of architectural form, urban morphology, graphic works and product works.
Urban parks play a crucial role in children’s development. With UGC demonstrating their value in capturing granular user experiences, they have become an increasingly important data source in park research. However, their application remains preliminary and challenging when studying children. This study investigates urban park services related to children’s wellbeing through user-generated content from 46 parks in Shanghai. It developed a structured lexicon by integrating 11 established audit tools with UGC, quantifying public perception of services across 9 dimensions (including 44 indicators) of children’s well-being. Through BERT sentiment analysis, regression modeling, and machine learning, this study assessed service performance, identified key services influencing perceptions of children’s wellbeing, and captured their non-linear and interaction patterns. Findings indicate that Education services show substantial variation across parks; Safety, Nature, Comfort, and Play services significantly influence perceptions, with Play dominating in parks with sufficient facilities. Interaction effects between Play-Nature and Play-Safety combinations highlight the importance of integrated design. Additionally, the analysis revealed a conflict between safety management practices and user expectations in Shanghai parks, suggesting a shift from restrictive to supportive safety practices. These findings provide practical insights for park optimization and demonstrate the potential of UGC in child-friendly environment research.
Urban historical heritage conservation and adaptive reuse constitute a critical issue in urban renewal. Addressing the lack of effective evaluation tools for functional and spatial renovations of historical buildings, this study proposes a novel method for assessing and guiding adaptive renovations based on Space Syntax. Taking the Lifen (traditional Wuhan alleyway dwellings) complex of Hanrunli in Wuhan as a case study, this study focuses on the technical optimization of Space Syntax application and introduces the operational concept of “Integration Value Assignment” and quantifies the “Renovation Potential Value” of walls through Space Syntax topological analysis. The study demonstrates that the proposed Renovation Potential Value can predict the effectiveness of adaptive renovations, thereby identifying intervention priorities and supporting decision-making in heritage revitalization. This work establishes a new paradigm for quantitative evaluation in historical building renovations, contributes to the methodological advancement of Space Syntax applications, and provides insights for balancing heritage conservation with renewal demands.
This study investigates the transformation of Ottoman classical-period mosque architecture as it moved from its centralized, geometrically codified form in 16th–17th century Istanbul to the Anatolian provinces, where diverse local conditions fostered typological and representational innovations. Rooted in field-based architectural documentation and comparative typological analysis, the research centers on the Köprülü Mehmet Pasha Mosque in Vezirhan―a distinctive structure combining a domed front portico with a timber-roofed prayer hall, integrated within a roadside külliye complex. The following key findings emerge from the study: (1) A classification of four principal mosque typologies in provincial Anatolia: centralized domed, single-unit domed, timber-roofed, and hybrid plans; (2) The identification of the Vezirhan Mosque as a paradigmatic hybrid structure, which exhibits (i) a hybrid spatial configuration, (ii) a departure from canonical domed schemes through the use of a timber-roofed interior, and (iii) material choices grounded in regional construction traditions, such as rubble masonry and lime-based mortars; (3) An emphasis on how architectural materials and techniques shaped both structural solutions and aesthetic expressions in the provinces; (4) A comparative framework that situates Ottoman provincial mosques within broader center–periphery differentiation models, drawing parallels with examples from the Italian Renaissance, French Gothic/Renaissance, Safavid Iran, and Mamluk Egypt. Ultimately, the study argues that such provincial mosques are not derivative reflections of imperial models but original architectural expressions embodying local identity, regional resourcefulness, and cultural meaning―contributing actively to the transregional historiography of Ottoman architecture.
This study investigates the nonlinear relationship between real estate prices and the age of railway stations using a hedonic price model and Generalized Additive Models. By drawing parallels between the life cycle of railway stations and human life stages, we examine how property prices evolve in response to the opening, maturation, and eventual decline of stations over time. The analysis focuses on real estate data within a 15-min radius of railway stations in Japan, considering both Tokyo and non-Tokyo regions. The results show distinct price patterns corresponding to different stages in the station’s lifecycle: initial price increases due to capitalization effects from the opening, followed by a decline as stations age, and subsequent price appreciation following redevelopment efforts. The study highlights the importance of station age as a significant factor influencing real estate prices and provides insights into the need for strategic urban redevelopment policies at key lifecycle stages. The findings contribute to the understanding of station-area price dynamics, with implications for urban planning and real estate investment strategies.
Recently, cultural tourism has emerged as a key driver for economic revitalization, and subway stations located near historic districts have become important cultural and economic centers. A pressing challenge now lies in how to better leverage the cultural resources of these areas. Additionally, it's necessary to explore how to integrate transportation, cultural, and environmental resources to enhance overall benefits, particularly within the framework of sustainable development goals. To address this, the study selected subway stations adjacent to historical districts of various cultural types across China as samples. Cultural value was quantified using Value Philosophy (VP) and Cultural Sociology Theory (CST). A spatial efficiency evaluation system was developed, incorporating three key dimensions: transportation, culture, and place and employed an evaluation model combining “CRITIC-VIKOR-GRA.” A range of data, including geographical information, passenger flow, point of interest (POI), and network views, were collected to support objective research. Research indicates that culture and place dimensions exert a more direct influence on spatial efficiency, whereas traffic factors demonstrate greater significance in fostering the cohesion of spatial resources. To enhance spatial efficiency and fully realize resource value, it is essential to promote close interaction and reciprocal feedback mechanisms among the dimensions of transportation culture, and place.
Under the dual influences of traditional Life-Death views and four decades of urban expansion, urban cemeteries, as unique elements of urban form, have transformed, inevitably impacting land planning and functional layouts. These spaces have been inadequately addressed, especially in stock-based renewal where land scarcity intensifies conflicts between burial needs and urban development. This study focuses on three in-situ retained urban cemeteries in Nanjing, adopting a case study approach with urban morphology, multi-source quantitative analysis (including three spatial vitality elements), and data visualization, supplemented by comparative verification. Key findings reveal that urban cemeteries exhibit strong internal stability but low vitality and high negative externality. Their morphology has remained almost unchanged, with surrounding areas showing significant housing price depreciation within a 1-km radius, adjacent communities’ visual avoidance, and low daily pedestrian flow, peaking only during Qingming Festival. These results quantitatively verify that such cemeteries act as “fixed patches” in the urban fabric, restricting land efficiency and urban integration due to cultural and physical factors. This research uniquely contributes by interpreting cultural-spatial interplay, providing empirical insights into “Not-In-My-Backyard” facilities in China. It emphasizes the necessity of integrating cemeteries into urban planning and concludes with forecasts for their future, considering emerging urban renewal trends.
In response to demands for improved living standards and sustainable development, optimizing the spatial morphology of residential districts is crucial for reducing energy use and enhancing indoor environmental quality. This study introduces a multi-objective optimization (MOO) framework to optimize residential district morphology for energy efficiency and indoor environmental quality. Using parametric modeling and performance simulation, six representative forms, defined by plan layout and vertical distribution, were developed from field surveys in Qingdao, a cold-climate city in China. Early-stage planning variables―building orientation, floor height, and window-to-wall ratios (WWR)―were optimized for energy use intensity (EUI), useful daylight illuminance (UDI), and predicted percentage dissatisfied (PPD). Results show reductions of 6.14% in EUI and 4.84% in PPD, and a 7.92% increase in UDI. Slab layouts achieved the lowest EUI, while mixed-height forms maximized UDI; The Slab-Highrise model showed the best overall performance. Increasing south-facing WWR improved energy efficiency and comfort, whereas larger east- and west-facing WWR enhanced comfort but slightly reduced daylight. Despite moderate numerical gains, results demonstrate robust optimization trends validated by statistical testing and empirical data. The study demonstrates how early-stage planning decisions influence multi-dimensional building performance and offers a validated, transferable framework to guide district planning in cold-climate regions.
To reduce carbon emissions and mitigate climate change, energy-efficient buildings are essential. Natural ventilation, facilitated by occupant-controlled windows, is an effective solution. In naturally ventilated buildings, their building performance, both environmental and energy, is quite dependent on occupant window behaviour. Understanding this relationship is vital for reducing energy use and enhancing well-being. Occupant behaviour, including window operation, is complex and requires interdisciplinary insights. Particularly in office spaces, more people exhibit complex window behaviours. Despite extensive research themes in this area, distinct contributions between engineering and social science studies have not been thoroughly explored. This study systematically reviewed 106 office-based studies to explore disparities and synergies between engineering and social science research methods. The review identified significant divergences in research aims, data collection methods, and theoretical foundations across disciplines. It further proposes an interdisciplinary framework grounded in a clear philosophical foundation. The framework clarifies the dual nature of occupant behaviour, shaped by both causal regularities and social meaning and integrates meta-theoretical positions with problem-driven methodological strategies. This review offers an initial attempt to guide interdisciplinary research on occupant window behaviour in buildings, potentially supporting more socially responsive and philosophically coherent approaches to building performance evaluation and design.
This study utilized a comparative methodology to explore the generative design of museum floor plans, addressing the complexity of meeting curatorial, designer, and visitor demands. A dataset of 263 museum plans was curated, and four generative methods―LoRA for diffusion models, Pix2Pix, CycleGAN, and the generative segmentation model―were trained. The results were evaluated by FID, SSIM, and MAE metrics for image fidelity and diversity. The pixel-based space syntax method was applied to evaluate the connectivity of the functional space, and expert scoring was combined to assess whether the generated plans met the layout characteristics of museums. Findings are: First, Pix2Pix led in terms of the image structural similarity metric SSIM and diversity metric FID but scored lowest in the image detail reconstruction metric MAE. Second, space syntax analysis revealed that the generated layouts had greater exhibition space connectivity but lower public space connectivity than the original images. Third, the expert grading results indicate that the outputs of LoRA better align with the professional expectations of designers regarding functional composition and spatial organization. These findings highlight the potential of generative models in museum design, particularly when enhanced by space syntax evaluations to improve spatial intelligibility and meet diverse stakeholder needs.
This study aimes to investigate the influence of function on the space organization of columned halls in ancient Iran, from the earliest examples at Hasanlu to Pasargadae (1300‒540 BC). The main questions are: What are the functional commonalities and differences among these halls and how did functional needs determine their space organization? Employing a comparative function-space analysis of key examples (Hasanlu II, Baba Jan I and II, Nush-i Jan, Godin Tepe, Pasargadae’s Palace P), the study identifies distinct functional-spatial patterns. Ritual halls (Hasanlu II) exhibit an elongated rectangular shape with a strong central axis, indirect and controlled access, spatial focus on a ritual element (e.g., a hearth or throne), linear peripheral seating platforms and a distinct hierarchical circulation. Multifunctional halls (Nush-i Jan, Godin, Baba Jan I, Pasargadae) feature regular colonnades creating open, flexible spaces with multiple access points and lack rigid hierarchies. Residential halls (Baba Jan II) display daily functional importance, featuring intentional asymmetry from functional elements, decentralized columns, adjoining service spaces and an absence of ceremonial or administrative features. The findings establish function as the primary determinant of space organization, manifested through movement hierarchies (guided vs. free), spatial relationships (self-contained vs. integrated) and scale/height (monumental in ceremonial spaces).
Historical districts face dual pressures of preserving cultural heritage and sustaining socioeconomic vitality, yet many suffer declining street vitality due to homogenized commercialization or limited functional mix. Using Harbin’s Daowai Historic District as a case study, this research examines the nonlinear and interactive effects of both built environment objective features and subjective perceptions on street vitality, integrating multi-source data with XGBoost and SHAP. Key findings include: (1) Boring and depressing are negatively associated with vitality, while lively and wealthy show positive correlations. Contrary to Jacobs’ emphasis on visual diversity and eyes on the street, we find that excessive aesthetic and safety scores suppress vitality; (2) Built environment exhibit significant threshold effects, but the thresholds and nonlinear trends in the historic district differ from those at the urban contexts; (3) Interaction effects are observed among various variables, such as between functional density and distance to transit; (4) Based on cluster analysis, we propose classification and renewal strategies for streets. The study reveals the subjective-objective multidimensional nonlinear mechanism shaping historical district street vitality, providing a scientific foundation for fine-grained, vitality-oriented renovation. The identified threshold effects offer practical references for revitalization strategies in densely built historic districts across Asia.
Urban parks are critical for ecological sustainability, residents' well-being, and spatial equity. Using Xi'an, China, as a case study, this paper integrates park POI, census, and street network data within a GIS platform and applies space syntax theory to build a multi-scale segment model. Kernel density estimation, standard deviation ellipse, and syntactic indicators―Integration (NAIN), Choice (NACH), and Synergy, were employed to evaluate the spatial distribution and accessibility of municipal, district, and community parks across walking, cycling, and driving scales. Results reveal a “central agglomeration-peripheral sparsity” pattern, with clear differences across park hierarchies: municipal parks align with high-choice arterial axes, district parks cluster at medium-integration nodes, and community parks are embedded within locally integrated neighbourhoods. However, some corridors with high movement potential remain underserved, while peripheral areas show service gaps. To address these disparities, the study proposes an optimisation strategy of “arterial linkage-green core radiation-nodal coverage,” coupling the hierarchical park system with the city's intrinsic spatial logic. The findings demonstrate the value of space syntax in green infrastructure planning and equity assessment, advancing theoretical understanding of urban spatial governance while offering practical guidance for building resilient and inclusive green space networks.
In this study, we introduce a novel self-organising map algorithm-based approach to floor plan diagram generation. A graph distance function was used instead of the standard Euclidean distance, together with a graph grid that fits inside any floor plan shape. The cosine distance was used to determine the best-matching neuron in the training process. Machine learning was then used to optimise the diagram on the fly; specifically, an unsupervised learning technique automatically generated initial floor plan diagrams without the need for an existing training dataset. The proposed method uses an adjacency matrix that describes the relationship between spaces. As a vital part of the process, the user can initialise fixed positions for some zones and elements, such as the entrance, thereby influencing the adjacency zoning localisation outcome. A Mathematica interface allows users to set input entrance positions, draw floor plan outlines and specify the direct relations between spaces. To validate the feasibility of the proposed approach, we performed an experiment using a residential apartment. The main contribution of this study was in improving the automation of the initial planning and design stages, which are the first crucial stages in designing floor plans.