“Chanting to express one’s qing (emotions) and xing (natural inclination)” holds a central position in a series of lyrical theories in Chinese classical poetics. Based on the philosophy of emotions and dispositions, this concept marks the development from the expression of aspirations and emotions in general and collective poetics prevalent in the pre-Qin period to the lyrical theory of individual poetics. The poetry of literati in the Han and Wei dynasties originated from the view of “expressing aspirations” and gave rise to the view of “springing from emotions.” During the Southern and Northern dynasties, poetic thought centered on qing and xing began to be established, and people often associated poetry with “chanting to express one’s qing and xing” in addition to the concepts of “expressing aspirations” and “springing from emotions.” The poetics of the Tang Dynasty absorbed the view of “Introduction to Mao’s Version of The Book of Odes” on the ballads and court hymns composed in the decline of the Zhou Dynasty and the theory of qing and xing from the Southern and Northern dynasties. Its fundamental assertion regarding poetry is “chanting to express one’s qing and xing,” and it endowed the traditional theory of qing and xing with an emphasis on individuality and a reverence for natural aesthetics. Despite advocating the didactic purpose, the poetics of the Tang Dynasty essentially aligned with the ballads composed in the decline of the Zhou Dynasty, “chanting to express one’s qing and xing.” In the Song Dynasty, the theory of qing and xing was combined with individual ethical essence, serving as the ideological foundation of the emphasis on reason in Song poetry. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, poets still followed the traditional theory of qing and xing, considering qing and xing as the foundation of poetry. Among them, the school of “expressing one’s inner self” emphasized the natural expression of individuality and valued inspiration and innovation.
In ancient Chinese literature, poetry is the primary vehicle for lyrical expression. Although they have been traditionally deemed pure lyrical works, the nineteen ancient poems contain narrative elements that have been explored in prior research endeavors. An examination of these poems from the perspective that Chinese literature is characterized by the complementary interplay of lyrical and narrative traditions can help develop a more nuanced understanding of Chinese literary works. Moreover, it can deepen the perception that Chinese literary history is not dominated by the lyrical tradition but is defined by the intricate harmony and mutual enrichment between the lyrical and narrative traditions.
In the second year of the Shangyuan period (761), Du Fu wrote a quartet of poems on sick or withered trees. They are “The Sick Cypress,” “The Withered Palms,” “The Sick Orange Tree,” and “The Withered Nanmu Tree.” Different from his previous practice of using trees to embody personal aspirations, the poet employed sick or withered trees to allude social realities. These poems, rich with profound contemplation on individuals, society, and the Tang Dynasty, cover many important topics, such as the poet’s bleak future, the decline of people’s livelihoods, the immorality of rulers, and even the decline of the Tang Dynasty. These poems reveal his disappointment with the future of his country and his personal ambitions. This disenchantment reflects the pivotal shift in Du Fu’s later thoughts, revealing the impetus behind his relinquishment of political aspirations in favor of poetic creation. In this regard, this quartet of poems is the most thought-provoking exploration, with an undeniable value among Du Fu’s later works.
The Lyric Collection on Objects of the Tea Smoke Pavilion is an anthology that Zhu Yizun compiled in his later years by carefully selecting object-depicting lyrics he composed throughout his life. Approximately 70 percent of the works were created before he participated in the imperial examination in 1679. This indicates that this anthology does not fully reflect the characteristics of the lyrics he penned in his later years. The collection title “Tea Smoke Pavilion,” as revealed in The Lyric Collection of the Serenity Dwelling, reflects the poet’s distinctive approach to expressing emotions through depicting objects. A detailed examination of Zhu’s works from the perspectives of textual structure, language, tone pattern and rhyming demonstrates that Zhu has consistently adhered to the same guiding principle when composing object-depicting lyrics. He has elevated the technique of “objectification,” pioneered by the poets of the Southern Song Dynasty to a new realm, crafting a unique beauty in object-depicting lyrics, which is different from the beauty of Song lyrics. His success is rooted in his emotional experiences depicted in The Serenity Dwelling Collection. His relentless exploration in artistic forms has provided a source of inspiration for scholars of later generations to explore how to convey personal sentiments. It also offers an opportunity to reflect on the merits and demerits regarding the development of object-depicting lyrics during the Qing Dynasty.
Guan Hanqing is a typical representative of the literati who fell into the lower end of society during the transition from Jin to Yuan. To fight against authority and wickedness, he pretended to be cynical and unconventional and created a series of plays in a wild and humorous manner, demonstrating his distinct and independent character. The social, historical, and romantic dramas he crafted with dedication and passion reflect the spirit of his time, which reviled darkness and yearned for enlightenment. The women in real-world life and historical heroes in his dramas are imbued with a spirit of upholding justice, a reverence for freedom, and a readiness to take bold action, shining with the radiance of cultural transformation and even humanistic liberation in recent antiquity.
Both the fu (narrative) writers and novelists in the Han and Wei periods excelled in observing and selecting “situations” and forming intertextuality in text creation. The common structure shared by Han and Wei fu and novels features a question-and-answer format that contributes to the “fictionality” and narrative development and a “particularly brilliant ending” that is instrumental in providing wise advice and expressing emotions. Fu works, through their classic themes, story arrangements, and plot settings in telling the tales of individuals or the supernatural, inspired novel creation in the Wei and Jin periods. Furthermore, fu works may contain novelistic allusions, while novels may quote fu works and contain stories involving fu composition. They are “similar in style and same in structure,” contributing to the prosperity of early Chinese literature through fictionality and exaggeration, with paradigmatic significance in the construction of “situations” in Chinese narrative literature.