Individual environmental behavior: A key role in building low-carbon communities in China

Abstract

People’s social behavior, especially environmental behavior, has a great impact on energy consumption and carbon emission. This paper explores both categories of individual factors (e.g., values, habits, education, motivation, etc.) and social factors (e.g., institution, infrastructure, encouragement, etc.), to clarify the correlation between them and their sub-factors. Low-carbon campus is a representative type of low-carbon community which is less difficult to build than other communities because university students are well-educated and, to some extent, are more environmental aware and more willing to change their behaviors. The energy-saving and environment-friendly policies implemented on campus are collected and overviewed in this paper. Additionally, the leaders and employees from the related administration departments are interviewed, and the data of electricity amount and water usage are analyzed and a well-designed questionnaire is handed out in a survey. The survey investigates the environmental knowledge, energy use habits, attitude toward low-carbon transformation, comments on the current institution and so on. The results show that different groups of students have varied levels of environmental knowledge, energy use habits, and attitude toward low-carbon campus management. To improve energy conservation and cut carbon emission radically, advices on building low-carbon community are also proposed including professional curriculums of environmental protection, economic initiatives, effect management, good communications, and sound infrastructures and facilities.

Keywords

behavior change / energy saving / low-carbon community / campus of Fudan University / China

Introduction

China has been deeply involved in actions to tackle climate change with the international community under the framework of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). As a key participator of the Paris Agreement which entered into force on 4th November 2016, China has made commitments to cut carbon dioxide emissions per unit of gross domestic product (GDP) by 60% to 65% by 2030 compared with the situation in 2005. Besides, China would expand the share of non-fossils fuels in its primary energy consumption to around 20% of the country energy basket. It can never be an easy task though. With the rapid economic growth contemporarily, especially the accelerating urbanization, China’s energy demand is raising dramatically while bringing along with lasting environmental impact. The average annual growth of China’s energy consumption in the last decade reached 7%–8% and 70% of the energy came from coal, which released more CO₂ emission and pollutants compared with petroleum and natural gases [¹]. China accounted for 27% of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2013, and several Chinese cities topped in the rank of the world’s most severely contaminated places according to the report of UNDP [²].

Humans highly rely on energy to support present lifestyle and current economic growth rate. In China, about 6.6 tCO₂e per capita results from power plants, transportations, daily necessities and air-conditioning systems [³]. Apart from energy crisis, other serious problems occur due to immoderate utilization of energy, of which climate change and environmental degeneration are the most threatening ones. In fact, most of the consequences are closely related to people’s behavior patterns [⁴], and it is people’s social behaviors (e.g., production, purchase etc.) that have a directly influence on energy consumption and carbon emissions [⁵]. Behavioral changes are necessary since consumption growth usually overwhelms the improved energy-efficiency gained by innovations of infrastructures [⁶]. In addition, Jiang and Keith Tovey presented that pro-environmental behavioral change not only satisfied the call for low carbon sustainability but also saved a great amount of cost [⁷].

A community can be classified in terms of their locations, functions or properties. However, the exact definition of “low-carbon communities” is still controversial. Raven et al. claimed that low-carbon community is a kind of organization in which the members perform more like citizens instead of consumers; moreover, they would strive together to upgrade the community’s energy infrastructure under the condition of the local economic development level [⁸]. Middlemiss recognized low-carbon communities as forms of co-operation and collaboration aiming at reducing carbon intensity through amenable context and mechanisms that activated pro-environmental behavior changes [⁹]. The communities differ in scales, media and operating systems. Heiskanen et al. introduced four different kinds of low-carbon communities: the place-based Manchester is My Planet program, the sector-based Green Office program, the interest-based Carbonarium program, and the smart mob community Carrotmob [¹⁰]. All researchers mentioned above have a common consensus that the individual behavior change should be addressed and considered in the process of building low-carbon communities, such as the pro-environmental initiatives developed by local community members, especially for those who live within a specific area, which shares a geographic zone, infrastructure, cultural background and local government, are taken into consideration.

Since more emphasis has been put on individual energy-related behaviors with an emerging tendency of focus on building low-carbon communities [¹⁰], there are four major problems involved in energy conservation programs that mainly focus on individuals: social dilemmas [¹¹], social conventions, socio-technical infrastructures, and disempowerment of individuals [¹²–¹⁴]. The construction of low-carbon communities arises as a potential solution for energy-related behavior change [⁹]. Nowadays, among policy makers and academic professionals, communities have been regarded as an increasingly prevailing space for realizing pro-environmental behavioral change [⁵,¹⁵,¹⁶]. According to Middlemiss and Parrish, in richer countries, such communities are sure to achieve significant cut in carbon emissions [¹⁷].

So far, in the process of building low carbon communities in China, the central and local governments play a main role. It is so called the “top-town” approach which focuses on policies designed and implemented to achieve the low carbon sustainability by governments, but the efforts from grassroots such as the individual behavior change and engagement are usually overlooked. Thus, it is worthy to undertake this study to focus on the role of individual behavior change and engagement in building low carbon communities in China.

Low-carbon campus is a representative type of low-carbon community, which is less difficult to build than other communities, because university students are well-educated and, to some extent, are more environmental aware and more willing to change their behaviors. Besides, they will become the backbone in all walks of life years later, so their environmental behaviors will lead the others and ultimately benefit the whole society. Therefore, in this paper, the role of behavior change in building low carbon communities is investigated through a special case—Handan campus of Fudan University in Shanghai, and both categories of individual factors and social factors are explored to clarify the correlation between them and their sub-factors. The analysis is made for understanding the reasons of promoting students’ environmentally friendly behavior and engagement through individual and social aspects. Finally, an approach for building low carbon communities effectively in China is proposed.

Method

The concept of low carbon society and community has become more and more popular in China in recent years, and it is clear that building low carbon communities is a long-term task. Not only would people be willing to make behavior changes if their own values and interests can be addressed and satisfied in communities, but also they are motivated to make long-term engagements under good institutional systems infrastructures, and regulations within communities [¹⁸]. Thus the key research question is how can the long-term behavior change be achieved?

Dunlap summarized the 30-year development of environmental behavior and sorted out two mainstream researches: one is the social practice method based on policy research and the other is the theory and method based on social psychology. He suggested that the two approaches should integrate and work together to frame a more effective theoretical framework [¹⁹]. Chatterton pointed out that there are two main groups of models of behavior related to energy consumption: one is the individualist model of behavior and the other is the socially orientated model. Both models play important roles in building low-carbon communities. Apart from the individual behavior model such as raising people’s awareness of energy-saving and emission-reducing, it also calls for the social model such as improving the civil infrastructure, management system and green technology.

To understand the behavior change in building low carbon communities, not only individual aspects (e.g., awareness, attitudes, and motivations), but also social aspects (e.g., regulations, institutions, and mechanisms) which significantly shape the individual behavior should be addressed. Therefore, research questions raised based on the description above are: what types of individual behavior changes may promote energy saving and carbon reductions, how do these changes lead to individuals’ behavior transitioning to more environmentally conscious actions, and what social measures are effective in empowering individuals to change their behavior?

Thus, the analysis made in this paper looks for the answers to the research questions presented above with the aim of understanding the role of individual behavior change and engagement in building low carbon communities in China by using Handan Campus of Fudan University as a case study. A combined research method which includes quantitative and qualitative analysis is utilized for the study.

The quantitative data of energy use in this study were mainly provided by the Electricity and Water Management Centre of Fudan University. Some energy data such as the electricity of Guanghua Building, the biggest building on campus, were provided by the Guanghua Building Management Office. Because electricity consumption accounts for 75% of energy use in Fudan University, the analysis focuses on the electricity use. Related CO₂ emissions are calculated by using

{{\displaystyle C}}_{\mathrm{t}\mathrm{c}}={{\displaystyle E}}_{\mathrm{t}\mathrm{c}}\mathrm{f，}

where C_tc is the CO₂ emissions (kg), E_tc is the energy use (i.e., the electricity use in this study) (kWh), f is the emission factor of electricity consumption in Shanghai (kgCO₂e/kWh) which is issued by the National Reform and Development Commission of China.

The qualitative data of energy-saving and environment-friendly policies implemented on campus are mainly collected through the literature review, interviews and surveys. In this study, most surveys were conducted online (www.wjx.cn). Some surveys were made in energy saving campaigns and quizzes on campus. Interviews that mainly focused on the energy management and performances were made with energy managers from the Electricity and Water Management Centre and Guanghua Building Management Office. The data related to students’ environmental behaviors and habits, energy use habits, recognition and attitude toward low-carbon transformation, comments on the current institution and facilities were mainly collected through a survey by using questionnaires. The survey was conducted to find out whether it was external environment and/or the inner thinking that interfered with people’s pro-environmental behavior. There are about 32000 full-time students at Fudan University. Comparing with 3000 faculties and staff, students spend more time in studying and living on campus, and they also have more regular lives in the university. Considering the availability and accessibility of data, the study only focused on students. The students were divided by their education level to see if it has certain effect on their environmental behavior. In May 2014, a total of 191 students from different majors took part in the survey and answered three kinds of questions: behaviors and habits, recognition and attitude, and institution and facilities. A rating method was designed based on the principle of Likert scaling system [²⁰–²²]. The rating method adopted in this study is a five-point scaling system, and participants will give score to each question to show their habit frequency of extent of agreement. The questionnaires used in this study are presented in Tables 1, 2 and 3.

In addition, the energy management institution and current energy policies of Fudan University were also discussed. Moreover, impediments and barriers are also explored and corresponding suggestions are made.

Case study: Handan campus of Fudan University

Energy performance in Fudan University

Founded in 1905, Fudan University covers an area of 600 acres with 21 buildings which are larger that 10000 m². There are approximately 32000 full-time students and 3000 teaching and administrative staff on campus. Electricity, natural gas, coal gas, gasoline, diesel fuel were used as energy resources in Fudan University. The total energy consumption in 2012 was 38518 tons of standard coal following an upward trend. In particular, electricity accounted for 88.17%, coal gas and natural gas 9.74%, and diesel and gasoline 2.09% separately (Fig. 1(a)). It is obviously observed that electricity takes up the majority of energy consumption which decides the fluctuation of the total tendency. Hence, electricity should be the key in energy-saving of the university.

Handan Campus was chosen as a case study since it accounts for the majority of the energy consumption of the university. According to the Energy White Paper of Fudan University (2011–2012), regarding the total energy consumption proportion, the 2012 data showed that Handan Campus still accounted for 60% of the total energy consumption. Figure 1(b) displays the energy consumption ratio of the four campuses in 2011–2013. In addition, considering data availability and convenience, Handan Campus is the earliest to install sub-metering monitoring system that ensures that energy consumption can be recorded automatically and well documented.

Certain efforts were also made by some student organizations among which “Fudan Low Carbon Station” is one that aims at the promotion of campus low-carbon life and the formation of campus environmental culture. It has launched a series of activities including “Zero Emission Room Competition,” reuse of single-printed paper and barter among students. The organization has also developed its own green credit system. Each waste recycling to the station will be recorded in the member’s green account by which he/she can redeem the points to get free gifts from the station.

Energy management institution

A leading group of energy-saving and an energy-management office was set up in 1990. The leader and deputy leader of the Energy-Saving Leading Group were held by the executive vice president and the executive vice president who is in charge of logistics of the university while the members are the leaders from the relevant ministries and offices. The Energy-Management Office belongs to the General Services Department, chaired by the director of the department (Fig. 2).

Shortly after the establishment of the Energy-Saving Leading Group, the energy quota management system was implemented, which set a quota to the amount of energy use of each faculty or department, with the excess part being borne by each faculty or department itself. In 2005, due to the completion of Guanghua Building and the adjustment of faculties and departments, the building was utilized by faculties and departments, thus the quota management system could not work properly. Additionally, the office work was affected by the replacement of the leadership group of the Energy-Saving Leading Group and the Energy-Management Office. After 2008, the Energy-Saving Leading Group was reorganized and related work was able to continue. In April 2010, the decision to set up an Energy Experts Committee was made, adding the Information Office to the Energy-Saving Leading Office and adding the Assets Department and the Logistics Company to the Energy-Management Office.

Energy policies

The 12th Five-Year Plan on Energy Saving and Emission Reduction has shifted the focus from heavy industry to non-industry with increasing pressure [²³]. Considering the specificity of the educational system, since the campus building area needs to be continuously expanded according to teaching and research demands, there is no mandatory requirement on energy consumption reduction from the state and local government. Instead, universities have to strictly control the overall rate of increase, Shanghai Municipal Government regulates that the annual rate of increase on energy consumption per unit area should not exceed 1.5%.

The earliest policy of Fudan University on energy-saving can be traced back to 1990. More energy-saving policies were released in the last decades. The main current energy management policies are listed in Table 4. Noticeably, several policies are newly formulated or modified in either 2013 or 2014, which are currently on the process of acquiring public comments and gaining approval of the leading departments of the university.

The energy charge policy has been revised many times along with the market prices of the energy carriers. The current policy sets different prices to various energy users on the campus. The energy users on the campus are divided into four categories such as the school canteens, students’ dormitory parks, internal users (mainly faculties and departments, and profitable users such as hotels affiliated to the university), and external users (banks, post office, shops, etc.) as presented in Table 5 in which the electricity prices for each category are also listed. The water usage fee is regulated by Shanghai Municipal Water Company and the gas fee is charged by Shanghai Gas Company.

As aforementioned, the electricity quota management system has been proved to be an innovative and efficient way for energy management. Specifically, the Energy-Management Office calculates and allocates the quota indicators to all the school faculties and departments, according to their average amount of electricity consumption in the last three years. If the quota is exceeded, the users must pay for the excess part on their own. Yet if the user use less than the quota by the end of the year, the remaining amount of electricity could be retained to the next year.

An act on the rewarding of energy-saving behaviors has been recently worked out. A Fudan University Energy-saving Reward Fund (CNY100000 per year) has been established, in order to commend the departments or individuals who have made outstanding contribution to energy-saving in the year. It is also encouraged by the university to invent novel products and provide reasonable energy-saving proposals. And to departments who have electricity remains by the end of the year, 10% of the remaining amount could be awarded to the departments and then could be added to the next year’s quota.

Survey on building low-carbon campus

Behaviors and habits

In this part, questions mainly focused on behaviors and habits that are relevant to energy, such as the use of electronic devices, temperature setting of air-conditioning, water-saving habit, frequency of taking lifts, and persuading others not to waste resources. By using the questionnaire (i.e., Table 1) presented in Section 2, the results of the survey are tabulated in Table 6 where the final score (in the last column) represents the frequency of the certain behavior or habit, which is in concert with the recurrence rate.

Owing to charge-by-time water metering system connected to students’ campus card the water saving performance topped in both the two groups with an average score of 4.67. In Fudan University, students should pay a fee to have bath in the bathroom and to get boiling water from boiler rooms, and the time for having the bath is recorded to calculate the cost, which raises their awareness of saving water. Fudan University has been assessed as a water-saving university since 2012, which proves that the construction of a water-saving Fudan University is effective. In fact, the overall water consumption of Handan campus of Fudan University is 3.04 × 10⁶ m³, 3.09 × 10⁶ m³, and 3.13 × 10⁶ m³ in 2010, 2011, and 2012 respectively though it is still increasing the growth rate drop from 1.61% to 1.21%. By conducting a series works such as leak detection of underground pipeline and water-saving campaign, the water consumption has been brought under effective control.

There is a difference between the frequencies of undergraduates and graduates in taking lifts when the floor is low, with a score of 4.06 and 3.51, respectively, as can be seen in Table 6. Possible explanation from the objective side should be that undergraduates usually have classes in the classroom buildings without lifts, which limits their frequency of taking lifts while most graduates usually work in the seminar rooms that are equipped with lifting system and the stairs are out of convenient access.

As to turning off electronic devices when not in use, undergraduates tended to give more positive response than graduates. The average score of 3.15 suggests that the action with great energy-saving potential still lacks enough attention, though theoretically it will annually reduce an energy consumption (324 kg CO₂) of about 368 kWh. This also applies to the temperature setting issue, scoring 3.43 averagely. There is a big potential for energy reduction from this action as well, since careful temperature setting measures can bring about 221 kWh energy saving (194 kg CO₂).

The lowest average score (2.75) occurs when it comes to persuading others not to waste resources. To persuade others not to waste resources, a person needs to bear a strong responsibility for the environment. Combining the previous 4 results which are related to the use of electronic devices, temperature setting of air-conditioning, water-saving habit, and frequency of taking lifts, and the poor performance of persuading others not to waste resources, it suggested that while people themselves are aware of doing good to the environment they still lack some kind of empowerment to guide or influence others to conduct pro-environmental behaviors.

Recognition and attitude

Questions in this part generally emphasized on environmental recognition and attitude, i.e., some environmental definition, information searching initiative, value of personal behavior, personal responsibility cognition, and willingness to join relevant NGOs. The survey was made by using Table 2, and the results of the survey are presented in Table 7.

Both the two groups (undergraduate and graduates) claim that they are familiar with the definition of environmental concepts (avg. 4.07). The result are acceptable since, as university students, they are exposed to a large quantity of latest information daily on environmental issues and they have certain elective courses which themed with environmental issues.

Most of the participants thought that they were responsible of reducing the GHGs emissions with an average score of 4.08. However, they did not value individual behavior change significant to the reduction of carbon emissions (3.86). This may be, to some extent, contradictory but understandable. While students at Fudan campus community have high motivations to tackle climate issue compared to common communities, the motivation did not transfer to behavior changes. People did not realize that individual behavior can bring huge enhancement since they lack the information connecting behavior to the reduction of energy consumption and carbon emissions based on their daily campus life.

Both undergraduates and graduates admit that they will not search for information related to low-carbon by themselves very often (avg. 3.48). It can be observed that people tend to be told about low-carbon information since it is a relatively new topic and it is necessary for the authorities to provide the accessible and accurate information to help raise people’s awareness and stimulate behavior change.

People’s willingness to attend relevant NGOs is fair (avg. 3.74) in this survey while undergraduates (3.80) show more enthusiasm than graduates (3.67). This may be explained by the fact that undergraduates have more time and efforts, and that they have more low-carbon associations than graduates. So it is advisable for the two groups to collaborate together to held activities aiming at promoting the low-carbon concept.

Institution and facilities

Questions in this part highlighted on institutions and facilities to know students’ knowledge about energy institutions and their satisfaction on facilities. Besides internal individual aspect, individual behavior change is also decided by external social aspect [²⁴,²⁵], and at community level these factors could be infrastructure, management and resource. The survey was made by adopting Table 3, and the results of the survey are given in Table 8.

Though the Water and Electricity Center of Fudan University has worked out several editions of Energy White Paper, few interviewers have heard of it (avg. 2.02) not to mention knowing the details of it. Besides, it is not very accessible to get information on school’s regulation on energy saving and carbon emission reduction since most of the interviewers chose the negative answer (avg. 2.65) leading to a low understanding of the regulations as well (avg. 2.76). There are still lots to do with the information transmission work to provide people with the right information within their convenient access, otherwise the previous hard work would not have the ideal outcome. Some interviewers were aware of the waste of energy in classroom buildings and libraries (avg. 3.70) while there are no regulations about this issue yet on the school level.

There was few recognition of campus activities related to environmental issues on campus (3.21) and not many interviewers have participated in at least one of the activities (2.87). There are actually several kinds of activities in this topic and the university even has an Energy Saving Week Campaign, which have been regarded as an efficient way to promote low-carbon concepts. However, during interview, most students said that they lacked information about these activities though they had certain interests in participating in. The poor promotion eventually led to a low participation rate of the activities.

Heiskanen suggested that infrastructure is an essential factor to support and maintain people’s behavior change [⁸]. In Fudan University, few people were so satisfied with the waste recycle system (avg. 2.68). The reason for this is that there is no garbage classification and collection system on campus. Thus infrastructure needs to be taken under consideration since it will narrow people’s capacity to change their behavior. In addition, the majority of the students agree (4.32) that it is necessary to install air-conditioning system and water heater in the dormitory. Nevertheless, the Energy White Paper of Fudan University indicates that installation of air-conditioning system has caused the increase of electricity consumption. It is held by most students that comfort should not be sacrificed to satisfy low- carbon calls. The authorities and organizations should guide people to consume power in a wise manner, instead of restricting energy consuming equipment.

Most interviewers are favorable for the university to adopt the economic management method to regulate people’s energy consumption behaviors (avg. 3.90). In addition, energy-saving mechanism, such as tiered pricing for electricity, is also favorable among students (avg. 3.78). This results accord with the study of Steg and Vlek (2009), which suggests that people’s willingness of behavior changes could be inspired by evaluating the costs and benefits of actions [²¹]. And certain economic mechanisms have been carried out to encourage students’ pro-environmental behavior.

Conclusions

Individuals have to work together, i.e., to work as a community, to realize the reduction of carbon emissions. This paper explores the importance of individual and society in building a low-carbon community. Changing people’s environmental behavior may be a more cost-effective way to cultivate people’s long-term pro-environmental behavior between the two approaches. In addition, it also has more potential since it is long overlooked.

Apart from the registration study, a survey was conduct asking people to answer questions about behaviors and habits, cognition and attitude, and institution and facilities. Careful analysis was done according to the survey results. The Fudan campus is relatively a simple low-carbon community since people here share similar educational background and a comparatively convenient access to information with similar socio-culture status. As far as other communities, such as residential communities, and business communities, are concerned, the solution could be more complicated. Apart from the factors discussed in this paper, further research needs to be performed to handle the new coming challenges.

Even though, Fudan University has already had some top-down policies to control energy consumption, these approaches lack participatory engagement from students to build a low-carbon campus. Just by telling people what to do is not sufficient enough for building a low-carbon community. Providing people with useful and accessible information is also necessary to motivate environmental friendly behavior change. Last but not least, facilities are essential in people’s behavior changes. This paper shows that to build a low-carbon campus in Fudan University, its management system should be comprehensive enough that involves both encouraging individual behavior change and the construction of reasonable policies, advanced infrastructure, feasible institutions and mechanisms at the university level. Some behavior changes are somewhat related to external conditions (i.e., infrastructure, policy etc.). However individuals still need to be empowered by intrinsic motivations [²⁶,²⁷], which may include low-carbon initiatives of certain pledge systems. Both individual’s behaviors and social support play important roles in building low-carbon communities. Moreover, apart from raising people’s awareness of energy-saving and emission-reducing, it also calls for the improvement of civil infrastructure, management system and green technology. These two approaches need to work together to achieve the goal of building a low-carbon community in Fudan University.

China has over 700 universities, colleges and research institutes with 27 million students. It is possible for university students to influence the behaviors of a large population in the whole society with the possible outcome of teaching behavior that supports a lifestyle which reduces energy consumption and carbon emissions. Therefore, building low carbon campuses is an important part in the process of developing low carbon communities in China.

References

[1] Jiang P, Chen Y, Geng Y, Dong W, Xue B, Xu B, Li W. Analysis of the co-benefits of climate change mitigation and air pollution reduction in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2013, 58: 130–137

[2] Wang Q, Chen X. Energy policies for managing China’s carbon emission. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015, 50: 470–479

[3] Quéré C L, Andres R J, Boden T, The global carbon budget 2012. Earth System Science Data Discussions, 2013, 6(2): 689–760

[4] Vlek C, Steg L. Human behavior and environmental sustainability: problems, driving forces, and research topics. Journal of Social Issues, 2007, 63(1): 1–19

[5] Jackson T. Motivating sustainable consumption: a review of evidence on consumer behaviour and behavioural change. Report to the Sustainable Development Research Network, Surrey: Centre for Environmental Strategies, 2005

[6] Midden C, Kaiser F G, Teddy McCalley L. Technology’s four roles in understanding individuals’ conservation of natural resources. Journal of Social Issues, 2007, 63(1): 155–174

[7] Jiang P, Keith Tovey N. Opportunities for low carbon sustainability in large commercial buildings in China. Energy Policy, 2009, 37(11): 4949–4958

[8] Raven R P, Heiskanen E, Lovio R, Hodson M, Brohmann B. The contribution of local experiments and negotiation processes to field-level learning in emerging (niche) technologies meta-analysis of 27 new energy projects in Europe. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 2008, 28(6): 464–477

[9] Middlemiss L. Influencing individual sustainability: a review of the evidence on the role of community-based organisations. International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development, 2008, 7(1): 78–93

[10] Heiskanen E, Johnson M, Robinson S, Vadovics E, Saastamoinen M. Low-carbon communities as a context for individual behavioural change. Energy Policy, 2010, 38(12): 7586–7595

[11] Kollock P. Social dilemmas: the anatomy of cooperation. Annual Review of Sociology, 1998, 24(1): 183–214

[12] Shove E. Converging conventions of comfort, cleanliness and convenience. Journal of Consumer Policy, 2003, 26(4): 395–418

[13] Guy S. Designing urban knowledge: competing perspectives on energy and buildings. Environment and Planning C, Government & Policy, 2006, 24(5): 645–659

[14] Thøgersen J. How may consumer policy empower consumers for sustainable lifestyles? Journal of Consumer Policy, 2005, 28(2): 143–177

[15] McKenzie-Mohr D. Promoting sustainable behavior: an introduction to community-based social marketing. Journal of Social Issues, 2000, 56(3): 543–554

[16] Seyfang G. Sustainable consumption, the new economics and community currencies: developing new institutions for environmental governance. Regional Studies, 2006, 40(7): 781–791

[17] Middlemiss L, Parrish B D. Building capacity for low-carbon communities: the role of grassroots initiatives. Energy Policy, 2010, 38(12): 7559–7566

[18] Jiang P, Chen Y H, Xu B, Building low carbon communities in China: the role of individual’s behaviour change and engagement. Energy Policy, 2013, 60: 611–620

[19] Dunlap R E. Environmental sociology a personal perspective on its first quarter century. Organization & Environment, 2002, 15(1): 10–29

[20] Likert R. A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology, 1932, 140: 1–55

[21] Wuensch K L. What is a Likert Scale? and How Do You Pronounce ‘Likert?’. East Carolina University, 2009

[22] Derrick B, White P. Comparing two samples from an individual likert question. International Journal of Mathematics and Statistics, 2017, 18(3): 1–13

[23] Zhou J, Mao X Q, Hu T, Zeng A, Xing Y K, Corsetti G. Implications of the 11th and 12th Five-Year Plans for energy conservation and CO₂ and air pollutants reduction: a case study from the city of Urumqi, China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016, 112(2): 1767–1777

[24] Moloney S, Horne R, Fien J. Transitioning to low carbon communities—from behaviour change to systemic change: lessons from Australia. Energy Policy, 2010, 38(12): 7614–7623

[25] Jiang P, Chen Y H, Geng Y, Dong W B, Analysis of the co-benefits of climate change mitigation and air pollution reduction in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2013, 58: 130–137

[26] Steg L, Vlek C. Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: an integrative review and research agenda. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 2009, 29(3): 309–317

[27] Kaplan S. Human nature and environmentally responsible behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 2000, 56(3): 491–508

RIGHTS & PERMISSIONS

Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature