Immune responses induced by different vaccine platforms against coronavirus disease-19

Abstract

There have been significant developments in the design of nanostructured scaffolds for eliciting robust immune responses named vaccine. The technique is to produce strong immune responses is to manipulate the appearance of a pathogen. Subsequently pathogens such as viruses and bacteria often demonstrate of multiple copies of ligands on their surfaces, the immune system is predominantly sensitive towards multivalent presentations of antigens. Consequently, when designing a vaccine, it is beneficial to garnish a nanostructured surface with multiple copies of an antigen so it can effectively act as an immune booster. Different methods are there for the development of the vaccine, from them most of the techniques are well developed and reported and some of in the developing state. This review focuses primarily on cellular and non-cellular vaccines, the whole cells or cellular proteins either as the source of antigens or the platform in which to deliver the antigens. Purpose of this review, understand and discussion on the various vaccine platforms which will contribute noteworthy information to vaccine research and development (R and D).

Keywords

Vaccine / platform / immune response / vaccination / development

References

[1] van Riel D, de Wit E. Next-generation vaccine platforms for COVID-19. Nat Mater. 2020; 19: 810-2.

[2] Ura T, Yamashita A, Mizuki N, Okuda K, Shimada M. New vaccine production platforms used in developing SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates. Vaccine. 2021; 39: 197-201.

[3] Keshavarz M, Mirzaei H, Salemi M, Momeni F, Mousavi MJ, Sadeghalvad M, et al. Influenza vaccine: where are we and where do we go? Rev Med Virol. 2019; 29: e2014.

[4] Jain S, Batra H, Yadav P, Chand S. COVID-19 vaccines currently under preclinical and clinical studies, and associated antiviral immune response. Vaccines (Basel). 2020; 8: 649.

[5] Clem AS. Fundamentals of vaccine immunology. J Glob Infect Dis. 2011; 3: 73-8.

[6] Jung EJ, Lee KH, Seong BL. Reverse genetic platform for inactivated and live-attenuated influenza vaccine. Exp Mol Med. 2010; 42: 116-21.

[7] Vermaelen K. Vaccine strategies to improve anti-cancer cellular immune responses. Front Immunol. 2019; 10: 8.

[8] Shin MD, Shukla S, Chung YH, Beiss V, Chan SK, Ortega-Rivera OA, et al. COVID-19 vaccine development and a potential nanomaterial path forward. Nat Nanotechnol. 2020; 15: 646-55.

[9] Forni G, Mantovani A. COVID-19 vaccines: where we stand and challenges ahead. Cell Death Differ. 2021; 28: 626-39.

[10] Lurie N, Saville M, Hatchett R, Halton J. Developing COVID-19 vaccines at pandemic speed. N Engl J Med. 2020; 382: 1969-73.

[11] Ahire ED, Talele SG, Shah HS. Nanoparticles as a promising technology in microbial pharmaceutics. In: Mahapatra DK, Talele SG, Haghi AK, editors. Applied pharmaceutical science and microbiology: novel green chemistry methods and natural products. New York: Apple Academic Press; 2020. p. 26.

[12] Pickard JM, Zeng MY, Caruso R, Núñez G. Gut microbiota: role in pathogen colonization, immune responses, and inflammatory disease. Immunol Rev. 2017; 279: 70-89.

[13] Basha S, Surendran N, Pichichero M. Immune responses in neonates. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2014; 10: 1171-84.

[14] Strunk T, Currie A, Richmond P, Simmer K, Burgner D. Innate immunity in human newborn infants: prematurity means more than immaturity. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2011; 24: 25-31.

[15] Nagy A, Alhatlani B. An overview of current COVID-19 vaccine platforms. Comput Struct Biotechnol J. 2021; 19: 2508-17.

[16] Mellet J, Pepper MS. A COVID-19 vaccine: big strides come with big challenges. Vaccines (Basel). 2021; 9: 39.

[17] Yaqub O, Castle-Clarke S, Sevdalis N, Chataway J. Attitudes to vaccination: a critical review. Soc Sci Med. 2014; 112: 1-11.

[18] Ura T, Okuda K, Shimada M. Developments in viral vector-based vaccines. Vaccines (Basel). 2014; 2: 624-41.

[19] Choi Y, Chang J. Viral vectors for vaccine applications. Clin Exp Vaccine Res. 2013; 2: 97-105.

[20] Rollier CS, Reyes-Sandoval A, Cottingham MG, Ewer K, Hill AV. Viral vectors as vaccine platforms: deployment in sight. Curr Opin Immunol. 2011; 23: 377-82.

[21] Kaur SP, Gupta V. COVID-19 vaccine: a comprehensive status report. Virus Res. 2020; 288: 198114.

[22] Li Y, Tenchov R, Smoot J, Liu C, Watkins S, Zhou Q. A comprehensive review of the global efforts on COVID-19 vaccine development. ACS Cent Sci. 2021; 7: 512-33.

[23] Ulmer JB, Mason PW, Geall A, Mandl CW. RNA-based vaccines. Vaccine. 2012; 30: 4414-8.

[24] Delany I, Rappuoli R, De Gregorio E. Vaccines for the 21st century. EMBO Mol Med. 2014; 6: 708-20.

[25] Chen WH, Strych U, Hotez PJ, Bottazzi ME. The SARS-CoV-2 vaccine pipeline: an overview. Curr Trop Med Rep. 2020: 1-4.

[26] Porter KR, Raviprakash K. Nucleic acid (DNA) immunization as a platform for dengue vaccine development. Vaccine. 2015; 33: 7135-40.

[27] Deering RP, Kommareddy S, Ulmer JB, Brito LA, Geall AJ. Nucleic acid vaccines: prospects for non-viral delivery of mRNA vaccines. Expert Opin Drug Deliv. 2014; 11: 885-99.

[28] Broderick KE, Humeau LM. Enhanced delivery of DNA or RNA vaccines by electroporation. In: Kramps T, Elbers K, editors. RNA vaccines. New York: Humana Press; 2017. pp. 193-200.

[29] Ho W, Gao M, Li F, Li Z, Zhang XQ, Xu X. Next-generation vaccines: nanoparticle-mediated DNA and mRNA delivery. Adv Healthc Mater. 2021; 10: e2001812.

[30] Shahcheraghi SH, Ayatollahi J, Aljabali AA, Shastri MD, Shukla SD, Chellappan DK, et al. An overview of vaccine development for COVID-19. Ther Deliv. 2021; 12: 235-44.

[31] Cagigi A, Loré K. Immune responses induced by mRNA vaccination in mice, monkeys and humans. Vaccines (Basel). 2021; 9: 61.

[32] Bettini E, Locci M. SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccines: immunological mechanism and beyond. Vaccines (Basel). 2021; 9: 147.

[33] Rawat K, Kumari P, Saha L. COVID-19 vaccine: a recent update in pipeline vaccines, their design and development strategies. Eur J Pharmacol. 2021; 892: 173751.

[34] Toussaint B, Chauchet X, Wang Y, Polack B, Le Gouëllec A. Live-attenuated bacteria as a cancer vaccine vector. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2013; 12: 1139-54.

[35] Stern PL. Key steps in vaccine development. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2020; 125: 17-27.

[36] Bonanni P, Santos JI. Vaccine evolution. Perspect Vaccinology. 2011; 1: 1-24.

[37] Gao Q, Bao L, Mao H, Wang L, Xu K, Yang M, et al. Development of an inactivated vaccine candidate for SARS-CoV-2. Science. 2020; 369: 77-81.

[38] Jafari H, Deshpande JM, Sutter RW, Bahl S, Verma H, Ahmad M, et al. Polio eradication. Efficacy of inactivated poliovirus vaccine in India. Science. 2014; 345: 922-5.

[39] Okayasu H, Sutter RW, Jafari HS, Takane M, Aylward RB. Affordable inactivated poliovirus vaccine: strategies and progress. J Infect Dis. 2014; 210 Suppl 1: S459-64.

[40] Vartak A, Sucheck SJ. Recent advances in subunit vaccine carriers. Vaccines (Basel). 2016; 4: 12.

[41] Schiller JT, Lowy DR. Raising expectations for subunit vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2015; 211: 1373-5.

[42] Tan M, Jiang X. Recent advancements in combination subunit vaccine development. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2017; 13: 180-5.

[43] Jaume M, Yip MS, Kam YW, Cheung CY, Kien F, Roberts A, et al. SARS CoV subunit vaccine: antibody-mediated neutralisation and enhancement. Hong Kong Med J. 2012; 18 Suppl 2: 31-6.

[44] Cox MM. Recombinant protein vaccines produced in insect cells. Vaccine. 2012; 30: 1759-66.

[45] Pollet J, Chen WH, Strych U. Recombinant protein vaccines, a proven approach against coronavirus pandemics. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2021; 170: 71-82.

[46] Sanders H, Feavers IM. Adjuvant properties of meningococcal outer membrane vesicles and the use of adjuvants in neisseria meningitidis protein vaccines . Expert Rev Vaccines. 2011; 10: 323-34.

[47] Ludwig C, Wagner R. Virus-like particles-universal molecular toolboxes. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2007; 18: 537-45.

[48] Fuenmayor J, Gòdia F, Cervera L. Production of virus-like particles for vaccines. N Biotechnol. 2017; 39: 174-80.

[49] Lua LH, Connors NK, Sainsbury F, Chuan YP, Wibowo N, Middelberg AP. Bioengineering virus-like particles as vaccines. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2014; 111: 425-40.

[50] Mohsen MO, Speiser DE, Knuth A, Bachmann MF . Virus-like particles for vaccination against cancer. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol. 2020; 12: e1579.

[51] Noad R, Roy P. Virus-like particles as immunogens. Trends Microbiol. 2003; 11: 438-44.

[52] Boigard H, Alimova A, Martin GR, Katz A, Gottlieb P, Galarza JM. Zika virus-like particle (VLP) based vaccine. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2017; 11: e0005608.

[53] Frietze KM, Peabody DS, Chackerian B. Engineering virus-like particles as vaccine platforms. Curr Opin Virol. 2016; 18: 44-9.

[54] Angsantikul P, Fang RH, Zhang L. Toxoid vaccination against bacterial infection using cell membrane-coated nanoparticles. Bioconjug Chem. 2018; 29: 604-12.

[55] Hu CM, Zhang L. Nanotoxoid vaccines. Nano Today. 2014; 9: 401-4.

[56] Jones RG, Liu Y, Rigsby P, Sesardic D. An improved method for development of toxoid vaccines and antitoxins. J Immunol Methods. 2008; 337: 42-8.

[57] Hajj Hussein I, Chams N, Chams S, El Sayegh S, Badran R, Raad M, et al. Vaccines through centuries: major cornerstones of global health. Front Public Health. 2015; 3: 269.

[58] Bremer PT, Janda KD. Conjugate vaccine immunotherapy for substance use disorder. Pharmacol Rev. 2017; 69: 298-315.

[59] Paradiso PR. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine for adults: a new paradigm. Clin Infect Dis. 2012; 55: 259-64.

[60] Black SB, Shinefield HR, Hansen J, Elvin L, Laufer D, Malinoski F. Postlicensure evaluation of the effectiveness of seven valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2001; 20: 1105-7.

[61] Robert-Guroff M. Replicating and non-replicating viral vectors for vaccine development. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2007; 18: 546-56.

[62] Belete TM. A review on promising vaccine development progress for COVID-19 disease. Vacunas. 2020; 21: 121-8.

[63] Jeyanathan M, Afkhami S, Smaill F, Miller MS, Lichty BD, Xing Z. Immunological considerations for COVID-19 vaccine strategies. Nat Rev Immunol. 2020; 20: 615-32.

[64] Haidere MF, Ratan ZA, Nowroz S, Zaman SB, Jung YJ, Hosseinzadeh H, et al. COVID-19 vaccine: critical questions with complicated answers. Biomol Ther (Seoul). 2021; 29: 1-10.

[65] Dhama K, Sharun K, Tiwari R, Dadar M, Malik YS, Singh KP, et al. COVID-19, an emerging coronavirus infection: advances and prospects in designing and developing vaccines, immunotherapeutics, and therapeutics. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2020; 16: 1232-8.

[66] Rabaan AA, Al-Ahmed SH, Sah R, Tiwari R, Yatoo MI, Patel SK, et al. SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 and advances in developing potential therapeutics and vaccines to counter this emerging pandemic. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2020; 19: 40.

[67] COVID-19 vaccine tracker [Internet]. Rockville: Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society (RAPS); c2021 [cited 2021 Sep 8]. Available from: https://www.raps.org/news-and-articles/news-articles/2020/3/covid-19-vaccine-tracker

[68] COVID-19 vaccines [Internet]. World Health Organization; c2021 [cited 2021 Sep 8]. Available from: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/covid-19-vaccines

[69] Brisse M, Vrba SM, Kirk N, Liang Y, Ly H. Emerging concepts and technologies in vaccine development. Front Immunol. 2020; 11: 583077.

[70] Kyriakidis NC, López-Cortés A, González EV, Grimaldos AB, Prado EO. SARS-CoV-2 vaccines strategies: a comprehensive review of phase 3 candidates. NPJ Vaccines. 2021; 6: 28.

[71] Chung YH, Beiss V, Fiering SN, Steinmetz NF. COVID-19 vaccine frontrunners and their nanotechnology design. ACS Nano. 2020; 14: 12522-37.

[72] Lurie N, Sharfstein JM, Goodman JL. The development of COVID-19 vaccines: safeguards needed. JAMA. 2020; 324: 439-40.

[73] Kashte S, Gulbake A, El-Amin Iii SF, Gupta A. COVID-19 vaccines: rapid development, implications, challenges and future prospects. Hum Cell. 2021; 34: 711-33.

[74] Kabir MA, Ahmed R, Chowdhury R, Iqbal SMA, Paulmurugan R, Demirci U, et al. Management of COVID-19: current status and future prospects. Microbes Infect. 2021; 23: 104832.

[75] Bharadwaj KK, Srivastava A, Panda MK, Singh YD, Maharana R, Mandal K, et al. Computational intelligence in vaccine design against COVID-19. In: Raza K, editor. Computational intelligence methods in COVID-19: surveillance, prevention, prediction and diagnosis. Germany: Springer; 2021. pp. 311-29.

[76] Borah P, Deb PK, Deka S, Venugopala KN, Singh V, Mailavaram RP, et al. Current scenario and future prospect in the management of COVID-19. Curr Med Chem. 2021; 28: 284-307.

[77] Borah P, Deb PK, Al-Shar’i NA, Dahabiyeh LA, Venugopala KN, Singh V, et al. Perspectives on RNA vaccine candidates for COVID-19. Front Mol Biosci. 2021; 8: 635245.