Evaluation of yield performance of Capsicum annuum (chili) cultivated using a low-cost, sustainable hydroponic system

Abstract

One of the most pressing global challenges in conventional agriculture is climate change, which adversely affects crop productivity. Global food security is increasingly threatened by shifting climate patterns, depleting groundwater levels, and rapid urbanization. In this context, soilless hydroponics cultivation offers a sustainable solution, requiring minimal inputs, minimizing pesticide and agrochemical use, and enabling resource-efficient water management. This approach allows for climate-resilient production with precisely controlled yields under indoor farming conditions. Capsicum annuum (chili), a widely consumed food crop with high nutraceutical value, faces serious cultivation threats due to unpredictable weather fluctuations. This study evaluates the growth performance of C. annuum under a low-cost, water-efficient hydroponic system designed for indoor cultivation, utilizing repurposed mineral water bottles as growing units. A comparative assessment between soilless hydroponics and conventional soil-based cultivation was conducted to determine the potential of this system under controlled indoor conditions. The findings indicate that plant growth characteristics, yield performance, and nutraceutical quality were enhanced in the low-cost, non-circulating hydroponic setup. Key physiological parameters, including reactive oxygen species generation and antioxidant activity, were systematically measured. Overall, the results demonstrate that this sustainable hydroponic approach not only contributes to water-efficient, climate-resilient, and space-saving household chili production but also addresses solid waste management by repurposing discarded plastic bottles, thereby aligning with borader environmental sustainability goals.

Keywords

Hydroponics / Yield performance / Indoor cultivation

Funding

The work was funded by the Adamas University, India, through Seed grants (Reference No.: AU/REG/ NOT/2023/11/003) to Dr. Moumita Gangopadhyay.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare they have no competing interests.

References

[1] Ritson C. Population growth and global food supplies. In: Food Education and Food Technology in School Curricula: International Perspectives. Berlin: Springer; 2020. p. 261-271. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-39339-7_17

[2] Lal R. Climate change and soil degradation mitigation by sustainable management of soils and other natural resources. Agric Res. 2012; 1:199-212. doi: 10.1007/s40003-012-0031-9

[3] Gomiero T. Soil degradation, land scarcity and food security: Reviewing a complex challenge. Sustainability. 2016; 8(3):281. doi: 10.3390/su8030281

[4] Wassmann R, Jagadish SVK, Sumfleth K, et al. Regional vulnerability of climate change impacts on Asian rice production and scope for adaptation. Adv Agron. 2009; 102:91-133. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2113(09)01003-7

[5] Solankey SS, Kumari M, Akhtar S, Singh HK, Ray PK. Challenges and opportunities in vegetable production in changing climate: Mitigation and adaptation strategies. In: Advances in Research on Vegetable Production Under a Changing Climate. Vol. 1. Berlin: Springer; 2021. p. 13-59. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-63497-1_2

[6] Bahar AA, Faried HN, Ullah S, Hussain A, Khan Z. Comparative analysis of Capsicum’s growth, leaf nutrients, fruit antioxidants and yield in soilless cultivation systems under partially controlled greenhouse. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr. 2025; 25:5124-5139. doi: 10.1007/s42729-025-02452-6

[7] Gul S, Chashoo HF, Hanief F, Abubakr A, Malik MM, Hamid I. Pesticide biomagnification:A comprehensive exploration of environmental dynamics and human health implications. In: Food Security, Nutrition and Sustainability Through Aquaculture Technologies. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature; 2025. p. 299-309. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-75830-0_16

[8] Penuela J, Ben C, Boldyrev S, Gentzbittel L, Ouerdane H. The indoor agriculture industry: A promising player in demand response services. Appl Energy. 2024; 372:123756. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.123756

[9] Son JE, Kim HJ, Ahn TI. Hydroponic systems. In: Plant Factory. United States: Academic Press; 2020. p. 273-283. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-816691-8.00020-0

[10] Bunyuth Y, Mardy S. Hydroponic systems: An overview of benefits, challenges, and future prospects. Indones J Soc Econ Agric Policy. 2024; 1(1):10-18.

[11] Pandey R, Jain V, Singh KP. Hydroponics Agriculture: Its Status, Scope and Limitations. United States: Division of Plant Physiology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute; 2009. p. 20.

[12] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAOSTAT: Food Balance Sheets. Available from: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/fbs [Last accessed on 2025 Mar 26].

[13] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAOSTAT: Crops and Livestock Products. Available from: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/qcl [Last accessed on 2025 Mar 26].

[14] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. FAOSTAT: Trade - Crops and Livestock Products. Available from: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/tcl [Last accessed on 2025 Mar 26].

[15] Wang X, Yu LM, Li FC, Zhang GL, Zhou WJ, Jiang XH. Synthesis of amide derivatives containing capsaicin and their antioxidant and antibacterial activities. J Food Biochem. 2019; 43(9):e13061. doi: 10.1111/jfbc.13061

[16] Lee IO, Lee KH, Pyo JH, Kim JH, Choi YJ, Lee YC. Anti-inflammatory effect of capsaicin in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric epithelial cells. Helicobacter. 2007; 12(6):510-517. doi: 10.1111/j.1523-5378.2007.00521.x

[17] Friedman JR, Nolan NA, Brown KC, et al. Anticancer activity of natural and synthetic capsaicin analogs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2018; 364(3):462-473. doi: 10.1124/jpet.117.243691

[18] Lu M, Cao Y, Xiao J, Song M, Ho CT. Molecular mechanisms of the anti-obesity effect of bioactive ingredients in common spices: A review. Food Funct. 2018; 9(9):4569-4581. doi: 10.1039/C8FO01349G

[19] Wang F, Xue Y, Fu L, et al. Extraction, purification, bioactivity and pharmacological effects of capsaicin: A review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2021; 62:5322-5348. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1884840

[20] Redington KL, Disenhouse T, Strantzas SC, et al. Remote cardioprotection by direct peripheral nerve stimulation and topical capsaicin is mediated by circulating humoral factors. Basic Res Cardiol. 2012; 107(1):241. doi: 10.1007/s00395-011-0241-5

[21] Kuzma M, Fodor K, Almási A, Mózsik G, Past T, Perjési P. Toxicokinetic study of a gastroprotective dose of capsaicin by HPLC-FLD method. Molecules. 2019; 24(15):2848. doi: 10.3390/molecules24152848

[22] Alimuddin, Subrata DM, Nurmayulis, Khastini RO, Arafiyah, R. Analysis of chilli plant physiology conventional system, greenhouse hydroponic utilization system using fuzzy logic. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2018; 434(1):012219. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/434/1/012219

[23] A’fifah AR, Ismail MR, Puteri EMW, et al. Optimum fertigation requirement and crop coefficients of chilli (Capsicum annuum) grown in soilless medium in the tropic climate. Int J Agric Biol. 2015; 17(1):80-88.

[24] Das A, Sing Majhi D. Low cost hydroponics devices and use of harvested water for vegetable and flower cultivation. J Appl Hortic. 2009; 11(2):123-126. doi: 10.37855/jah.2009.v11i02.26

[25] Demir I, Ellis RH. Development of pepper (Capsicum annuum) seed quality. Ann Appl Biol. 1992; 121(2):329-341. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7348.1992.tb03452.x

[26] Miché L, Balandreau J. Effects of rice seed surface sterilization with hypochlorite on inoculated Burkholderia vietnamiensis. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2001; 67(7):3046-3052. doi: 10.1128/AEM.67.7.3046-3052.2001

[27] Abdul-Baki AA, Anderson JD. Vigor determination in soybean seed by multiple criteria. Crop Sci. 1973; 13(6):630-633. doi: 10.2135/cropsci1973.0011183X001300060013x

[28] Hoagland DR, Arnon DI. The water culture method for growing plants without soil. Cal Agric Exp Stat Cir. 1938; 347:32.

[29] Schneider F, Swiatek J, Jelali M. Detection of growth stages of chilli plants in a hydroponic grower using machine vision and YOLOv8 deep learning algorithms. Sustainability. 2024; 16(15):6420. doi: 10.3390/su16156420

[30] Cheeseman JM. Hydrogen peroxide concentrations in leaves under natural conditions. J Exp Bot. 2006; 57(10):2435-2444. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erl004

[31] Rao KM, Sresty TVS. Antioxidative parameters in the seedlings of Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millspaugh) in response to Zn and Ni stresses. Plant Sci. 2000; 157(1):113-128. doi: 10.1016/S0168-9452(00)00273-9

[32] Beauchamp C, Fridovich I. Superoxide dismutase: Improved assays and an assay applicable to acrylamide gels. Anal Biochem. 1971; 44(1):276-287. doi: 10.1016/0003-2697(71)90370-8

[33] Havir EA, McHale NA. Biochemical and developmental characterization of multiple forms of catalase in tobacco leaves. Plant Physiol. 1987; 84(2):450-455. doi: 10.1104/pp.84.2.450

[34] Olatunji TL, Afolayan AJ. Comparison of nutritional, antioxidant vitamins and capsaicin contents in Capsicum annuum and C. Frutescens. Int J Veg Sci. 2019; 26(2):190-207. doi: 10.1080/19315260.2019.1629519

[35] Waqas M, Ahmed D, Qamar MT. Surfactant-mediated extraction of capsaicin from Capsicum annuum L. Fruit in various solvents. Heliyon. 2022; 8(8):e09812. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10273

[36] Gangopadhyay M, Gantait S, Palchoudhury S, Ali MN, Mondal C, Pal AK. UVC-priming mediated modulation of forskolin biosynthesis key genes against Macrophomina root rot of Coleus forskohlii - a tissue culture based sustainable approach. Phytochem Lett. 2016; 17:36-44. doi: 10.1016/j.phytol.2016.06.007

[37] Dsouza V, Puja, Rithika R, Malathi R. Comparative analysis of cocopeat and soil on plant constituents. J Chem Health Risks. 2024; 14(3):2611-2622.

[38] Baiyin B, Tagawa K, Yamada M, et al. Study on plant growth and nutrient uptake under different aeration intensity in hydroponics with the application of particle image velocimetry. Agriculture. 2021; 11(11):1140. doi: 10.3390/agriculture11111140

[39] Roosta HR. The responses of pepper plants to nitrogen form and dissolved oxygen concentration of nutrient solution in hydroponics. BMC Plant Biol. 2024; 24(1):281. doi: 10.1186/s12870-024-04943-7

[40] Teo ZWN, Yu H. Genetic breeding for indoor vertical farming. NPJ Sustain Agric. 2024; 2(1):13. doi: 10.1038/s44264-024-00021-5

[41] Gunawardena MDM, De Silva CS. Identifying the impact of temperature and water stress on growth and yield parameters of chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). OUSL J. 2015; 7:25-42. doi: 10.4038/ouslj.v7i0.7306

[42] Putra PA, Yuliando H. Soilless culture system to support water use efficiency and product quality: A review. Agric Agric Sci Procedia. 2015; 3:283-288. doi: 10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.01.054

[43] Rahim SAA, Shamsir S, Ibrahim N. Fertilizing the flame: Effects of AB fertilizer concentration on vegetative growth, fruit yield, and capsaicin biosynthesis in Capsicum frutescens. Malays J Fundam Appl Sci. 2024; 20(3):597-609. doi: 10.11113/mjfas.v20n3.3383

[44] Kaya C, Akram NA, Sürücü A, Ashraf M.Alleviating effect of nitric oxide on oxidative stress and antioxidant defence system in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) plants exposed to cadmium and lead toxicity applied separately or in combination. Sci Hortic. 2019; 255:52-60. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2019.05.029

[45] Erol UH. Comparison of morphological, biochemical and enzymatic responses of some Capsicum species to drought stress during developmental stages. Russ J Plant Physiol. 2024; 71(4):106. doi: 10.1134/S1021443724605895

[46] Yang Y, Gao C, Ye Q, et al. The influence of different factors on the metabolism of capsaicinoids in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Plants (Basel). 2024; 13(20):2887. doi: 10.3390/plants13202887

[47] Ruiz-Lau N, Medina-Lara F, Minero-García Y, et al. Water deficit affects the accumulation of capsaicinoids in fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq. HortScience. 2011; 46(3):487-492. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.46.3.487

[48] Mahmood T, Rana RM, Ahmar S, et al. Effect of drought stress on capsaicin and antioxidant contents in pepper genotypes at reproductive stage. Plants (Basel). 2021; 10(7):1286. doi: 10.3390/plants10071286

[49] Salsabila BB, Novita RD, Islamiati DN, Apriliani DR, Fitriyani V. Utilization of tea and used bottles as a medium to grow kangkung vegetable hydroponics in Bulakamba Village. Indones J Devot Empower. 2020; 2(1):35-37. doi: 10.15294/ijde.v2i1.42288

[50] Rizki CN, Fitriyasni F, Manja M, Ulfi K, Mainidar M. Hydroponic vegetables by utilizing beverage plastic bottle waste. Bull Soc Stud Community Dev. 2023; 2(1):38-40. doi: 10.61436/bsscd/v2i1.pp38-40

[51] Rusmanto R, Nurmusischa N, Shelly WM. TPS,eco brick, and hydroponics as efforts to reduce and manage waste in RW. 01, Simpang Tuan Village. Diligente J Advokasi Pengabdi. 2024; 1(1):14-22.

[52] Zulkarnaen I, Lestari IP, Amisnaipa A, et al. The role of urban agriculture in facing the food crisis. E3S Web Conf. 2024; 595:04004. doi: 10.1051/e3sconf/202459504004

[53] Kratky BA. A suspended net-pot, non-circulating hydroponic method for commercial production of leafy, romaine, and semi-head lettuce. Veg Crops. 2010; 1:1-19.