Aptamer-based technologies for extracellular vesicle analysis and engineering: from isolation to functional applications

Abstract

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are natural mediators of intercellular communication and hold promise for disease diagnosis and drug delivery, yet their intrinsic heterogeneity complicates isolation, molecular profiling, and targeted delivery. Aptamers, owing to their high affinity, specificity, chemical tunability, and scalable synthesis, offer a flexible molecular toolkit to address these challenges. In this review, we highlight recent progress in integrating aptamers into EV research across three interconnected domains: (1) the selection of aptamers against EV-associated surface markers; (2) the development of aptamer-based methods for EV capture and isolation; (3) the use of aptamer-functionalized EVs for targeted drug delivery and immunomodulation. We also discuss outstanding challenges, particularly the need for selection strategies that better preserve native EV epitope conformations and the rational design of multifunctional aptamer architectures. Looking forward, the convergence of aptamer technology with EV biology is expected to enable aptamer-drug conjugates and minimally invasive, dynamic liquid biopsy approaches for major diseases such as cancer, ultimately advancing early diagnosis and precision medicine.

Keywords

Extracellular vesicles / aptamers / SELEX / disease diagnosis / immunomodulation / drug delivery

References

[1] Kalluri R.The biology, function, and biomedical applications of exosomes.Science2020;367:eaau6977 PMCID:PMC7717626

[2] Liu YJ.A review of the regulatory mechanisms of extracellular vesicles-mediated intercellular communication.Cell Commun Signal2023;21:77 PMCID:PMC10100201

[3] Couch Y,Di Vizio D.A brief history of nearly EV-erything - the rise and rise of extracellular vesicles.J Extracell Vesicles2021;10:e12144 PMCID:PMC8681215

[4] Coelho C,Maryam M.Listeria monocytogenes virulence factors, including listeriolysin O, are secreted in biologically active extracellular vesicles.J Biol Chem2019;294:1202-17 PMCID:PMC6349127

[5] Harrison NA,da Silva DR,Lorca GL.Identification of biomarkers for systemic distribution of nanovesicles from Lactobacillus johnsonii N6.2.Front Immunol2021;12:723433 PMCID:PMC8438180

[6] Guo M,Shi Y.A review of exosome isolation based on membrane protein recognition: Methods, performance, and challenges.Anal Chim Acta2026;1410:345477

[7] Zhu L,Yuan L.Aptamer-based extracellular vesicle isolation, analysis and therapeutics.Interdiscip Med2023;1:e20220019

[8] Kohlberger M.SELEX: Critical factors and optimization strategies for successful aptamer selection.Biotechnol Appl Biochem2022;69:1771-92 PMCID:PMC9788027

[9] Stephens C,Gubler U.A beginners guide to SELEX and DNA aptamers.Anal Biochem2025;703:115890

[10] Chen Z,Jain A,Liu C.Discovery of aptamer ligands for hepatic stellate cells using SELEX.Theranostics2017;7:2982-95 PMCID:PMC5566100

[11] Chowdhury R,Pham CV.Role of aptamer technology in extracellular vesicle biology and therapeutic applications.Nanoscale2024;16:11457-79

[12] Xie S,Fu T.Aptamer-based targeted delivery of functional nucleic acids.J Am Chem Soc2023;145:7677-91

[13] Alnaser-Almusa O,Ilyas M.Recent advances in aptamer-based biosensing technology for isolation and detection of extracellular vesicles.Front Cell Dev Biol2025;13:1555687 PMCID:PMC12326547

[14] Slalmi A,Battas I,Medromi H.Artificial intelligence-driven SELEX design of aptamer panels for urinary multi-biomarker detection in prostate cancer: a systematic and bibliometric review.Biomedicines2025;13:2877 PMCID:PMC12731070

[15] Ikemoto MJ,Uta D.Efficient and specific selection of high-affinity DNA aptamers targeting μ-opioid receptor via functional extracellular vesicles.Commun Biol2026;9:861 PMCID:PMC13342530

[16] Ströhle G,Li H.Affinity-based isolation of extracellular vesicles and the effects on downstream molecular analysis.Anal Bioanal Chem2022;414:7051-67

[17] Sekhon SS,Kim Y.2D graphene oxide-aptamer conjugate materials for cancer diagnosis.npj 2D Mater Appl2021;5:202

[18] Sun F,Shi J.A protocol integrating aptamer based magnetic separation and gentle dsDNAse cleavage for exosomes isolation and multi-exosomics analysis.Anal Chim Acta2026;1382:344850

[19] Makkar S,Priyadarshi N,Kumar S.Unravelling the therapeutic properties of aptamer-modified exosome nanocomposite.Adv Colloid Interface Sci2025;342:103517

[20] Song Z,Barrero RA,Zhang F.Development of a CD63 aptamer for efficient cancer immunochemistry and immunoaffinity-based exosome isolation.Molecules2020;25:5585 PMCID:PMC7730289

[21] Yu J,Cui Z,Cai H.Thermosensitive capturer coupled with the CD63 aptamer for highly efficient isolation of exosomes.ACS Macro Lett2024;Epub ahead of print

[22] Webber J,Katilius E.Proteomics analysis of cancer exosomes using a novel modified aptamer-based array (SOMAscan^TM) platform.Mol Cell Proteomics2014;13:1050-64 PMCID:PMC3977183

[23] Yin W,Cai J.Isolation of structurally heterogeneous TCR-CD3 extracellular vesicle subpopulations using caliper strategy.Angew Chem Int Ed Engl2023;62:e202300954

[24] Huang Y,Jia F.Divalent aptamer-functionalized nanochannels for facile detection of cancer cell-derived exosomes.Sensors2023;23:9139 PMCID:PMC10674588

[25] Cha BS,Lee ES.Development of a novel DNA aptamer targeting colorectal cancer cell-derived small extracellular vesicles as a potential diagnostic and therapeutic agent.Adv Healthc Mater2023;12:e2300854

[26] Lee ES,Kim J,Son J.Immobilization-free SELEX for aptamer discovery targeting colorectal cancer-derived small extracellular vesicles.J Nanobiotechnology2025;23:738 PMCID:PMC12648788

[27] Esposito CL,Ingenito F.Identification of a novel RNA aptamer that selectively targets breast cancer exosomes.Mol Ther Nucleic Acids2021;23:982-94 PMCID:PMC7868932

[28] Zhao L,Zhu C.Three-step evolutionary enhanced capillary electrophoresis-SELEX for aptamer selection of exosome vesicles.Talanta2024;267:125203

[29] Kim J,Zhu J.Integrated microfluidic isolation of aptamers using electrophoretic oligonucleotide manipulation.Sci Rep2016;6:26139 PMCID:PMC4877600

[30] Liu B,Qiu L.Deterministic evolution of aptamers via a microfluidic-integrated robotic platform using complex exosomes as targets.ACS Nano2026;20:5476-88

[31] Truong TT,Bustos-Quevedo G.Robotic centrifugal microfluidics with in-rotation liquid supply for the extraction of multiple liquid biopsy analytes in one platform.Biosensors2026;16:309 PMCID:PMC13296457

[32] Cui W,Wen X.Identifying a cancer therapeutic target: cell-SELEX identifies a membrane protein for aptamer-mediated growth suppression.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2026;123:e2514681123 PMCID:PMC13038061

[33] Zhang Y,Ning Z.Strategies for improving aptamer screening efficiency: library design, awareness innovation, and instrument assistance.Crit Rev Anal Chem2026;56:267-87

[34] He M,Wu X.Functional SELEX and biomedical applications of aptamers: beyond molecular recognition.Angew Chem Int Ed Engl2025;64:e202424687

[35] Chen S,Yuan Q.Current advances in aptamer-based biomolecular recognition and biological process regulation.Chem Res Chin Univ2022;38:847-55 PMCID:PMC9077342

[36] Citartan M,Presela R.Aptamers as the chaperones (Aptachaperones) of drugs-from siRNAs to DNA nanorobots.Int J Pharm2019;567:118483

[37] Hosseini Shamili F,Rafatpanah H.Immunomodulatory properties of MSC-derived exosomes armed with high affinity aptamer toward mylein as a platform for reducing multiple sclerosis clinical score.J Control Release2019;299:149-64

[38] Gobbo J,Cordonnier M.Restoring anticancer immune response by targeting tumor-derived exosomes with a HSP70 peptide aptamer.J Natl Cancer Inst2016;108:djv330

[39] Wang Q,Sun S.Discovery of a novel DNA aptamer for impeding tumor metastasis by blocking the functional activity of target protein on exosome.Chem Eng J2025;522:167253

[40] Porciani D,Marchetti L,Nifosì R.Two interconvertible folds modulate the activity of a DNA aptamer against transferrin receptor.Mol Ther Nucleic Acids2014;3:e144 PMCID:PMC3912326

[41] Jiang K,Wang T.Discovery and cryo-EM-guided development of a neuropilin-2-binding aptamer for receptor antagonism.J Am Chem Soc2026;148:21983-95 PMCID:PMC13268707

[42] Wu D,Jin D,Zhang ZY.Dual-aptamer modified graphene field-effect transistor nanosensor for label-free and specific detection of hepatocellular carcinoma-derived microvesicles.Anal Chem2020;92:4006-15

[43] Pan L,Ma X.DNA encoded multi-round profiling of extracellular vesicle membrane proteins for cancer diagnostics.Biosens Bioelectron2025;291:118055

[44] Cao H,Su Y.Evolution of aptamer materials maps exosomal surface proteins at the nano-bio interface.Nano Lett2026;26:4449-61

[45] Zheng H,Yan G.Immunomagnetic capture and traceless release of native tumor-derived exosomes from human plasma for exploring interaction with recipient cells by aptamer-functionalized nanoflowers.Anal Chim Acta2024;1287:342109

[46] Chen Y,Zhu Q.Rapid exosome isolation and in situ multiplexed detection of exosomal surface proteins and microRNAs on microfluidic platform.Analyst2023;148:2387-94

[47] Wang G,Zhu X.Mesoporous magnetic nanoparticles conjugated aptamers for exosomes capture and detection of Alzheimer’s disease.Eng Regen2023;4:349-56

[48] Su N,Liu W.Specific isolation and quantification of PD-L1 positive tumor derived exosomes for accurate breast cancer discrimination via aptamer-functionalized magnetic composites and SERS immunoassay.Talanta2025;281:126956

[49] Huang W,Yang C.Aptamer decorated magnetic graphene oxide nanoparticles for effective capture of exosomes.Chem Eng J2022;431:133849

[50] Haizan I,Park DH.Dual-target magneto-immunoassay with bifunctional nanohybrids for breast cancer exosome detection.Talanta2025;286:127532

[51] Liu Y,Xie Q.Ag@MNPs-based electrochemical and colorimetric dual-modal strategy for facile multiplex analysis of exosomes.Sens Actuators B Chem2025;429:137287

[52] Sun D,Li W.Electrochemical detection of cancer cell-derived small extracellular vesicles based on three aptamer recognition and dual signal amplification.Sens Actuators B Chem2025;442:138096

[53] Miller L,Ströhle G.Comparison of extracellular vesicle elution methods from aptamer-conjugated magnetic beads for downstream physical characterization and immunoassays.Can J Chem2025;

[54] Miller L,Li H.Methods for eluting intact extracellular vesicles from aptamer-based affinity chromatography: a critical evaluation based on downstream applications.Biotechnol J2025;20:e202400648

[55] Cong XZ,Zhang HJ.Microfluidic device-based in vivo detection of PD-L1-positive small extracellular vesicles and its application for tumor monitoring.Anal Chem2024;96:2658-65

[56] Zhou Z,Qian X.Target-specific exosome isolation through aptamer-based microfluidics.Biosensors2022;12:257 PMCID:PMC9027373

[57] Meng Y,Bühler M.Direct isolation of small extracellular vesicles from human blood using viscoelastic microfluidics.Sci Adv2023;9:eadi5296 PMCID:PMC10558121

[58] Xi X,Xu L.3D dynamic magnetic microfluidic chip for efficient plasma extracellular vesicle enrichment and machine learning-based multiparametric diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma.J Nanobiotechnology2025;24:8 PMCID:PMC12772050

[59] Meggiolaro A,Brun P.Microfluidic strategies for extracellular vesicle isolation: towards clinical applications.Biosensors2022;13:50 PMCID:PMC9855931

[60] Wang C,Yang H.A light-activated magnetic bead strategy utilized in spatio-temporal controllable exosomes isolation.Front Bioeng Biotechnol2022;10:1006374 PMCID:PMC9486319

[61] Tang J,Li Q.A DNA-based hydrogel for exosome separation and biomedical applications.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2023;120:e2303822120 PMCID:PMC10334772

[62] Luo J,Tang X.CRISPR/Cas12a-loaded intelligent DNA hydrogel for universal and ultrasensitive exosome assay.VIEW2024;5:20230086

[63] Jiang Z,Yang G.An electrochemiluminescent sensor based on glycosyl imprinting and aptamer for the detection of cancer-related extracellular vesicles.Anal Chem2024;96:2550-8

[64] Feng D,Miao Y.Dual selective sensor for exosomes in serum using magnetic imprinted polymer isolation sandwiched with aptamer/graphene oxide based FRET fluorescent ignition.Biosens Bioelectron2022;207:114112

[65] Zhu H,Liu W.CLCtips: an integrated pipette-tip platform for high-efficiency extracellular vesicle proteomics via aptamer-mediated capture and on-tip digestion.Anal Chem2026;98:6896-906

[66] Wang L,Sulaiman M.A bioinspired three-dimensional high-curvature nano-interface integrated microfluidic chip for small extracellular vesicles enrichment and machine learning-assisted prostate cancer precision diagnosis.Adv Sci2026;13:e21178 PMCID:PMC13335776

[67] Lu Y,Liu W.Isolation of PD-L1 extracellular vesicle subpopulations using DNA computation mediated microfluidic tandem separation.Small Methods2023;7:e2300516

[68] Woo HK,Choi Y.Automated disc device for multiplexed extracellular vesicle isolation and labelling from liquid biopsies in cancer diagnostics.Nat Biomed Eng2026;10:882-96 PMCID:PMC13396894

[69] Xiong Y,Yang M.Proximity hybridization-mediated fluorescence resonance energy transfer for highly specific detection of tumor-derived exosomes: Combining multiple exosomal surface markers.Sens Actuators B Chem2022;353:131126

[70] Park J,Cha B,Park J.Multiplexed immuno-acoustic separation of exosome and lipoprotein from platelet using acoustic radiation force.Sens Actuators B Chem2026;454:139580

[71] Ding Z,Han F,Xu Z.DNA-driven photothermal amplification transducer for highly sensitive visual determination of extracellular vesicles.ACS Sens2023;8:2282-9

[72] Wang D,Liang Y.Thermodynamic-kinetic tailored photothermal-responsive molecular switching for extracellular vesicle manipulation.ACS Nano2026;20:18919-33

[73] Ren Y,Lu W.Multivalent DNA flowers for high-performance isolation, detection, and release of tumor-derived extracellular vesicles.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2023;15:55358-68

[74] Wang Y.Gold nanoparticles engineered nanoporous membrane with sandwich structure for sensitive electrochemical quantification of exosome.Sens Actuators B Chem2023;393:134294

[75] Zhao X,Qiu X,Luo Y.Rapid and sensitive exosome detection with CRISPR/Cas12a.Anal Bioanal Chem2020;412:601-9

[76] Yuan R,Ma H,Wang L.Recent progress in electrochemical aptasensors: construction and application.Chemosensors2023;11:488

[77] Aljohani MA.Exosomes in clinical laboratory: from biomarker discovery to diagnostic implementation.Medicina2025;61:1930 PMCID:PMC12654841

[78] Cui Y,Zhang Y.Advances in aptamer technology for target-based drug discovery.J Pharm Anal2026;16:101369 PMCID:PMC12933817

[79] Zheng L,Li Y.Empowering exosomes with aptamers for precision theranostics.Small Methods2025;9:e2400551

[80] Xu R,Ying Y.Surface functionalization of extracellular vesicles with nucleic acids towards biomedical applications.Curr Top Med Chem2023;23:1307-18

[81] Dzarieva FM,Pavlova GV.Aptamers and endocytosis: the path into tumor cells.Biochem Biophys Res Commun2025;791:152960

[82] Hosseini NF,Ramezani M,Hashemi SM.AS1411 aptamer-functionalized exosomes in the targeted delivery of doxorubicin in fighting colorectal cancer.Biomed Pharmacother2022;155:113690

[83] Mettlen M,Srinivasan S,Schmid SL.Regulation of clathrin-mediated endocytosis.Annu Rev Biochem2018;87:871-96 PMCID:PMC6383209

[84] Kelly BT.Endocytic sorting of transmembrane protein cargo.Curr Opin Cell Biol2011;23:404-12

[85] Pishavar E,Abnous K.Aptamer-functionalized mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes for targeted delivery of SN38 to colon cancer cells.Iran J Basic Med Sci2023;26:388-94 PMCID:PMC10008394

[86] Wang J,Luo T,Zhao J.Disulfide linkage: a potent strategy in tumor-targeting drug discovery.Curr Med Chem2012;19:2976-83

[87] Ma W,Zhang D.Research progress of disulfide bond based tumor microenvironment targeted drug delivery system.Int J Nanomedicine2024;19:7547-66 PMCID:PMC11283832

[88] Erdogan O,Cevik O.Raloxifene-loaded and aptamer-bonded exosomes induce autophagic and apoptotic death in HeLa cells by enhancing the lysosomotropic effect.BIOCELL2023;47:1051-63

[89] Chahal GS,Parton RG.The biology of endosomal escape: strategies for enhanced delivery of therapeutics.ACS Nano2026;20:1789-813 PMCID:PMC12825385

[90] Kim J,Nam GH.Breaking barriers: engineering extracellular vesicles for enhanced endosomal escape and therapeutic delivery.J Control Release2026;389:114462

[91] Desai N,Salave S,Khunt D.Achieving endo/lysosomal escape using smart nanosystems for efficient cellular delivery.Molecules2024;29:3131 PMCID:PMC11243486

[92] Paillard A,Vignes-Colombeix C,Garcion E.The importance of endo-lysosomal escape with lipid nanocapsules for drug subcellular bioavailability.Biomaterials2010;31:7542-54

[93] Bahreyni A,Ashraf Nouhegar S,Luo H.Synergistic viro-chemoimmunotherapy in breast cancer enabled by bioengineered immunostimulatory exosomes and dual-targeted coxsackievirus B3.ACS Nano2024;18:4241-55 PMCID:PMC10851665

[94] Uddin N,Shu D,Guo P.Targeted delivery of RNAi to cancer cells using RNA-ligand displaying exosome.Acta Pharm Sin B2023;13:1383-99 PMCID:PMC10149909

[95] Zhou Q,Tang Y.Exosome-mediated delivery of artificial circular RNAs for gene therapy of bladder cancer.J Cancer2024;15:1770-8 PMCID:PMC10869980

[96] Liu X,Yu T.CL4-modified exosomes deliver lncRNA DARS-AS1 siRNA to suppress triple-negative breast cancer progression and attenuate doxorubicin resistance by inhibiting autophagy.Int J Biol Macromol2023;250:126147

[97] Yang Z,Li Z.Improved extracellular vesicle-based mRNA delivery for familial hypercholesterolemia treatment.Theranostics2023;13:3467-79 PMCID:PMC10283059

[98] Fu S,Liu L.GelMA hydrogel loading circNEFM-engineered exosomes inhibits glioma growth.ACS Biomater Sci Eng2025;11:6671-83

[99] Shi X,Tang Y.In vitro transcribed circRNA as a therapeutic agent for cancer.Acta Pharm Sin B2026;16:4285-313 PMCID:PMC13366352

[100] Elsharkasy OM,Driedonks TAP.A modular strategy for extracellular vesicle-mediated CRISPR-Cas9 delivery through aptamer-based loading and UV-activated cargo release.Nat Commun2025;16:10309 PMCID:PMC12639036

[101] Hegeman CV,Driedonks TAP,Vader P.Modulating binding affinity of aptamer-based loading constructs enhances extracellular vesicle-mediated CRISPR/Cas9 delivery.J Control Release2025;384:113853

[102] Xu JZ,Sun JX.Oncolytic virus OH2 induces PD-L1 upregulation via NF-κB signaling and synergizes with anti-PD-L1 therapy in prostate cancer through a targeted extracellular vesicle delivery system.J Immunother Cancer2026;14:e013818 PMCID:PMC12878378

[103] Zhuang J,Wu C.Extracellular vesicles engineered with valency-controlled DNA nanostructures deliver CRISPR/Cas9 system for gene therapy.Nucleic Acids Res2020;48:8870-82 PMCID:PMC7498310

[104] Zhang C,Wang M.“Triple-Punch” strategy exosome-mimetic nanovesicles for triple negative breast cancer therapy.ACS Nano2024;18:5470-82

[105] Quintavalle C,Roscigno G.Ex.50.T aptamer impairs tumor-stroma cross-talk in breast cancer by targeting gremlin-1.Cell Death Discov2025;11:94 PMCID:PMC11897156

[106] Luo ZW,Liu YW.Aptamer-functionalized exosomes from bone marrow stromal cells target bone to promote bone regeneration.Nanoscale2019;11:20884-92

[107] Sun JG,Gao YS,Chen P.Identification of the exosomal PD-L1 inhibitor to promote the PD-1 targeting therapy of gastric cancer.Eur J Med Chem2024;268:116182

[108] Yadav P,Viegas N.Bacterial exosomes cargo vaccine with EpCAM aptamers for targeting hepatocellular carcinoma.J Hepatol2023;78:S556-7

[109] Tu Z,Li Z.Tackling allergic airway inflammation with organic sheet-like nanoplatforms by targeted elimination of epithelial small extracellular vesicles.Adv Sci2025;12:e04197 PMCID:PMC12697784

[110] Basak M,Takahashi RU.Immunocyte derived exosomes: insight into the potential chemo-immunotherapeutic nanocarrier targeting the tumor microenvironment.ACS Biomater Sci Eng2023;9:20-39

[111] Wu Q,Lin H.Microfluidic replication and phenotypic profiling of extracellular vesicles from the tumor microenvironment using dual-switch aptamer logic gates.Anal Chem2025;97:5313-23

[112] Su Y,Deng R.Aptamer engineering exosomes loaded on biomimetic periosteum to promote angiogenesis and bone regeneration by targeting injured nerves via JNK3 MAPK pathway.Mater Today Bio2022;16:100434 PMCID:PMC9519612

[113] Jeong E,Lee M.Aptamer-engineered ellipsometry for clinical detection of BALF-derived exosomes: multi-level engineering for prognostic evaluation of immunotherapy responses.Adv Sci2026;13:e15247 PMCID:PMC12806343

[114] Hao J,Dong Y.Homogeneous, simple, and direct analysis of exosomal PD-L1 via aptamer-bivalent-cholesterol-anchor assembly of DNAzyme (ABCzyme) for tumor immunotherapy.Anal Chem2023;95:6854-62

[115] Muhammad M,Liu C,Zhan J.Monitoring of circulating exosomal immuno checkpoint in tumor microenvironment through ultrasensitive aptamer-functionalized SERS probes.Biosens Bioelectron X2022;12:100177

[116] Zhang YP,Hu Y.Accurate cancer screening and prediction of PD-L1-guided immunotherapy efficacy using quantum dot nanosphere self-assembly and machine learning.Nano Lett2024;24:1816-24

[117] Li Y,Ying M.Ultrasensitive profiling of extracellular vesicles by a microbead- and aptamer-enhanced thermophoretic assay for monitoring therapeutic responses.Anal Chem2025;97:26960-70

[118] Ren X,Xue F.Exosomal DNA aptamer targeting α-synuclein aggregates reduced neuropathological deficits in a mouse Parkinson’s disease model.Mol Ther Nucleic Acids2019;17:726-40 PMCID:PMC6709346

[119] Du B,Wang X.Multi-targeted engineered hybrid exosomes as Aβ nanoscavengers and inflammatory modulators for multi-pathway intervention in Alzheimer’s disease.Biomaterials2025;322:123403

[120] Zhang C,Lin R.Engineering self-assembled PEEK scaffolds with marine-derived exosomes and bacteria-targeting aptamers for enhanced antibacterial functions.J Funct Biomater2025;17:23 PMCID:PMC12842172

[121] Cui F,Ji H.GlycoEVLR: glycosylated extracellular vesicle-like receptors for targeting and sensing viral antigen.Chem Eng J2023;469:143844

[122] Chen Y,Yang S.A universal bio-hybrid nanoparticle backpack platform endows stem cells with microenvironmental resilience and sustained paracrine signaling.Nanomicro Lett2026;18:441 PMCID:PMC13385731

[123] Liu B.Structural transformation induced by locked nucleic acid or 2’-O-methyl nucleic acid site-specific modifications on thrombin binding aptamer.Chem Cent J2014;8:19 PMCID:PMC4000052

[124] Rajendran RL,Ghosh S,Batabyal R.Unlocking the secrets of single extracellular vesicles by cutting-edge technologies.Pathol Res Pract2025;269:155878

[125] Lötvall J,Hochberg F.Minimal experimental requirements for definition of extracellular vesicles and their functions: a position statement from the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles.J Extracell Vesicles2014;3:26913 PMCID:PMC4275645

[126] Welsh JA,O’Driscoll L.MISEV ConsortiumMinimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV2023): From basic to advanced approaches.J Extracell Vesicles2024;13:e12404 PMCID:PMC10850029

[127] Zhang X,Li Z.Microfluidic biochip-based multiplexed profiling of small extracellular vesicles proteins integrated with machine learning for early disease diagnosis.Adv Sci2025;12:e06167 PMCID:PMC12499472

[128] Kang SJ,Baek G.Scalable production of red cabbage-derived extracellular vesicles via tangential flow filtration with preserved therapeutic properties.J Ind Eng Chem2026;161:545-56