A new bio-oxidation method for removing iron deposits from waterlogged wood of Nanhai I shipwreck, Guangdong, China

Abstract

The widespread presence of iron and sulfur compounds such as pyrite in marine waterlogged archeological wood (WAW) can cause irreversible damage to the safety of its preservation. This issue has been a longstanding concern for cultural heritage conservation communities. In this study, we examined the distribution and phase composition of Fe and sulfur compounds in wood samples obtained from the Nanhai I shipwreck using ESEM-EDS, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and an X-ray diffractometer. The removal of iron from WAW samples of the Nanhai I shipwreck using Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans (A. ferrooxidans) was evaluated using conductivity and ICP-AES analysis. The results showed that A. ferrooxidans effectively improved the removal of iron from WAW. The degradation of fresh healthy wood during treatment was also analyzed using infrared spectroscopy, and the results showed that the treatment had little effect on the samples over a short period. This study demonstrates, for the first time, the feasibility of iron extraction from marine WAW by A.ferrooxidans. This was also the first attempt in China to apply biological oxidation to the removal of iron from marine archeological materials.

Keywords

Waterlogged archeological wood / Iron-sulfur compounds / Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans / Cultural heritage

Data Availability Statement

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files or are available upon request.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Author Contribution Statement

Linxu Chen: Conceived and designed the study. Qinglin Ma: Directed the conduct of experiments and data analysis. Yishu Wang: Conducted experiments and wrote the manuscript. Zijun Zhao: Sorted out the data and assisted in the experiment. Jianqun Lin: Provided some of the materials and equipment needed for the experiments.

Acknowledgements

The authors express their gratitude to Dr. Dawa Shen and at the China Academy of Cultural Heritage, Dr. Zhiguo Zhang at National centre for Archaeology for their kind support and assistance with this research. Wood samples were supplied by the Maritime Silk Road Museum of Guangdong. This research is funded by National Key R&D Program of China (2020YFC1521802).

References

[1] W. He. "Nanhai No. 1 Shipwreck" and "Maritime Silk Road", China Coast. Inspect. 10 (2019) 5.

[2] G. Tian, Explore the "Nanhai I" Water Iron Pot, Cult. Heritage World (2) (2020) 1.

[3] C.G. Bjordal, Microbial degradation of waterlogged archaeological wood, J. Cult. Heritage 13 (3-supp-S) (2012) S118-S122.

[4] Y. Fors, T. Nilsson, E.D. Risberg, M.M. Sandstr, P.J.I.B. Torssander, Sulfur accumu- lation in pinewood (Pinus sylvestris) induced by bacteria in a simulated seabed en- vironment: implications for marine archaeological wood and fossil fuels, Biodegra- dation 62 (4) (2008) 336-347.

[5] A.B. Magdalena, M. Mathilde, J. Clémentine, J. Pilar, R. Céline, E.J. Schofield, J.J.I.B. Edith, Biological oxidation of sulfur compounds in artificially degraded wood, Biodegradation 141(2018) S096483051731627X.

[6] J. Sorenson, D. Christensen, B.B. Jorgensen, Volatile Fatty acids and hydrogen as substrates for sulfate-reducing bacteria in anaerobic marine sediment, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 42 (1981) 5-11.

[7] Rémazeilles C., Tran K., Guilminot E., Conforto E., Refait PJSiC: study of Fe(II) sul- phides in waterlogged archaeological wood. 2013, 58(4):297.

[8] M. Sandstrom, I. Persson, F. Jalilehvand, U. Gelius, L. Gothe, Precipitation of salts on vasa: the sulfur problem, in: Proceedings of 8th ICOM Wet Organic Archaeological Materials (WOAM) Conference, 2001.

[9] Sandström M., Jalilehvand F., Persson I., Gelius U., Hall-Roth I.J.N.: Deterioration of the seventeenth-century warship Vasa by internal formation of sulphuric acid. 2002, 415(6874):893-897.

[10] Fors Y., Reviews MSJCS: sulfur and iron in shipwrecks cause conservation concerns. 2006, 35(5):399-415.

[11] Jones M.: For Future Generations: Conservation of a Tudor Maritime Collection.

[12] Fors Y., Jalilehvand F., Risberg E.D., BjRdal C., Phillips E., Sandstr M MJJoAS: sulfur and iron analyses of marine archaeological wood in shipwrecks from the Baltic Sea and Scandinavian waters. 2012, 39(7):2521-2532.

[13] Ma D., Zheng Y.: T T - Analysis of the iron sulfides in the shipwrecks Huaguang Reef I of the Southern Song dynasty. 2012.

[14] T. Jin, X. Ruan, J. Chen, Study on the underwater burial environment of the "Xiaobai Jiao No. I" site in Ningbo and its impact on the shipwreck, Res. Cult. Heritage China (1) (2016) 4.

[15] Zhang H., Shen D., Zhang Z., Ma Q.J.H.S.: Characterization of degradation and iron deposits of the wood of Nanhai I shipwreck. 2022, 10(1):1-13.

[16] Tian X.L., Nai-Sheng L.I., Zhang Z.G., Shen D.W., L. JJSoC, Archaeology: analysis and research on the wood from the Ming Dynasty shipwreck, Nan’ao No.1,in Shantou city, Guangdong. 2014.

[17] Vaclavkova S., JRgensen C.J., Jacobsen O.S., Aamand J., Elberling B.J.A.G.: The importance of microbial iron sulfide oxidation for nitrate depletion in anoxic Danish sediments. 2014, 20(4):419-435.

[18] K.M. Wetherall, and, R.M. Moss, and, A.M. Jones, and, A. DJJoAS: Sulfur and iron speciation in recently recovered timbers of the Mary Rose revealed via X-ray absorp- tion spectroscopy. 2008, 35(5):1317-1328.

[19] Almkvist P., - IJ: Extraction of iron compounds from waterlogged pine wood from the vasa. 2008.

[20] Macleod I.D., Kenna C.: Degradation of archaeological timbers by pyrite: oxidation of iron and sulphur species. 1991.

[21] F. YJIffk, O.K.O. strukturkemi: Sulfur-related conservation concerns in marine ar- chaeological wood: the origin, speciation and distribution of accumulated sulfur with some remedies for the vasa. 2008.

[22] Chelazzi G., S. Bjpmewe: Nanotechnologies for the conservation of waterlogged wood: the Vasa case studies. 2006.

[23] A EJS, B RS, B AM, A AMJ, D ASC, E JFWM, F AVCJJoCH: Strontium carbonate nanoparticles for the surface treatment of problematic sulfur and iron in waterlogged archaeological wood. 2016, 18:306-312.

[24] Multifunctional supramolecular polymer networks as next-generation consolidants for archaeological wood conservation, J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. (2014).

[25] Z. Zhang, N. Li, X. Tian, J. Liu, D. Shen, Research on the removal technology of sulfur and iron compounds from the wooden shipwreck of Qing Dynasty in Ningbo "Xiaobai Jiao No. I", Heritage Conserv. Archaeol. Sci. (4) (2014) 9.

[26] Sugio M., Inagaki, bacteriology TJJo: purification and some properties of sul- fur:ferric ion oxidoreductase from Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. 1987.

[27] Zhang X., Chen Z., Liu H., Guo S., C. KJJoCSfC, Protection: effect of environment factors on the growth of sulfate-reducing bacteria. 2000.

[28] Monachon M., Albelda-Berenguer M., Lombardo T., Cornet E., J. Ejepjp: Evaluation of an alternative biotreatment for the extraction of harmful iron and sulfur species from waterlogged wood. 136(9):937.

[29] H.R. Beller, T.E. Letain, A. Chakicherla, S.R. Kane, T.C. Legler, Coleman MAJJoB: Whole-genome transcriptional analysis of chemolithoautotrophic thiosulfate oxida- tion by Thiobacillus denitrificans under aerobic versus denitrifying conditions, J. Bacteriol. 188 (19) (2006) 7005.

[30] Valdés P., Quatrini H. DSJH: comparative genome analysis of Acidithiobacillus fer- rooxidans, A. thiooxidans and A. caldus: Insights into their metabolism and ecophys- iology. 2007, 94(1-4):180-184.

[31] R. Dejarom: Heavy metal mining using microbes. 2002, 56(1):65.

[32] Naoya O., Kazuhiro S., Norio M., Hiroshi, Bacteriology SJJo: anaerobic respiration using Fe(3 + ), S(0), and H(2) in the chemolithoautotrophic bacterium Acidithiobacil- lus ferrooxidans. 2002.

[33] I.C. Cardona, Biodesulfurization of two Colombian coals with native microorgan- isms, Fuel Process. Technol. 90 (9) (2009) 1099-1106.

[34] M. Vera, A. Schippers, W.J.A.M. Sand, Biotechnology: progress in bioleaching: fun- damentals and mechanisms of bacterial metal sulfide oxidation —part A, Appl. Mi- crobiol. Biotechnol. 97 (17) (2013) 7529-7541.

[35] C.L. Brierley, J. A.J.A.M. Brierley, Biotechnology: Progress in bioleaching: part B: applications of microbial processes by the minerals industries, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 97 (17) (2013) 7543-7552.

[36] Deveci H., Akcil A., Alp I.J.H.: Bioleaching of complex zinc sulphides using mesophilic and thermophilic bacteria: comparative importance of pH and iron. 2004, 73(3-4):293-303.

[37] D. Couillard, G.J.W.R. Mercier, Removal of metals and fate of N and P in the bacterial leaching of aerobically digested sewage sludge, Water Res. 27 (7) (1993) 1227-1235.

[38] L.V. Sian, N. Kelly, Q. Jamie, P.Y. Cheng, D.H. Wei, Y.L. Chan, H.J.M. Sarah, Surface chemical characterisation of pyrite exposed to Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and associated extracellular polymeric substances, Minerals 8 (4) (2018) 132.

[39] J.G. Reni Li, N. Macchioni, B. Pizzo, G. Xi, X. Tian, J. Chen, J. Sun, X. Jiang, J. Cao, Z. Zhang, Yafang Yin: characterisation of waterlogged archaeological wood from Nanhai No. 1 shipwreck by multidisciplinary diagnostic methods, J. Cult. Herit. 56(2022) 25-35.

[40] J.A. Bourdoiseau, M. Jeannin, R. Sabot, C. Rémazeilles, Refait PJCe, Characterisa- tion of mackinawite by Raman spectroscopy: effects of crystallisation, drying and oxidation, Corros. Sci. 50 (11) (2008) 3247-3255.

[41] Ganne-Chédeville C., JskelInen A.S., Froidevaux J., Hughes M., Navi P.J.H.: Natu- ral and artificial ageing of spruce wood as observed by FTIR-ATR and UVRR spec- troscopy. 2012, 66(2):163-170.

[42] J. Daoud, D.J.M.E. Karamanev, Formation of jarosite during Fe2 + oxidation by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, Miner. Eng. 19 (9) (2006) 960-967.

[43] M. Gleisner, R.B. Herbert, P.J.C.G. Kockum, Pyrite oxidation by Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans at various concentrations of dissolved oxygen, Chem. Geol. 225 (1-2)(2006) 16-29.

[44] Y. Xia, T.Y. Chen, J.L. Wen, Y.L. Zhao, J. Qiu, Sun RCJIJoBM, Multi-analysis of chemical transformations of lignin macromolecules from waterlogged archaeologi- cal wood, Int. J. Biol. Macrobiol. (2017) 407-416.

[45] N. Macchioni, B. Pizzo, C. Capretti, Giachi GJJoAS, How an integrated diagnostic approach can help in a correct evaluation of the state of preservation of waterlogged archaeological wooden artefacts, J. Archaeol. Sci. 39 (10) (2012) 3255-3263.

[46] Pizzo G., Archaeometry F.J.: Evaluation of the applicability of conventional meth- ods for the chemical characterization of waterlogged archaeological wood RID A-5399-2010. 2010, 2010, 52(-):656-667.