Perovskite solar cells for low earth orbit space applications

Abstract

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are a promising next-generation photovoltaic (PV) technology for space applications. Their high power-to-weight ratio, mechanical flexibility, and tunable optoelectronic properties make them particularly attractive for Low Earth Orbit (LEO) applications. PSCs demonstrate favorable behavior under low light and partial shading, as well as a unique self-healing response under certain space conditions. They also achieve specific power densities of 23-30 W g^-1, representing a 10-15× improvement over conventional silicon arrays (0.5-2 W g^-1) and 4-6× improvement over III-V multijunction cells (5.5 W g^-1), while maintaining > 92% efficiency retention under 1 × 10¹⁶ e cm^-2 electron irradiation. The key challenges and opportunities for PSCs in the LEO environment arise from intense ultraviolet radiation, vacuum exposure, thermal cycling, and proton irradiation. In this review, a comprehensive understanding of PSCs in the space environment is presented, including recent strategies to improve efficiency, as well as thermal and mechanical durability, while also addressing performance optimization and space PV analysis. This overview highlights the potential of perovskite photovoltaics for satellite power systems by enabling high-efficiency energy harvesting with minimal mass and processing constraints, positioning PSCs as a promising new PV paradigm for the coming decade.

Keywords

Perovskite solar cells / low earth orbit / radiation tolerance / space photovoltaics / lightweight

References

[1] Jolliff BL.The scientific legacy of the Apollo program.Phys Today2019;72:44-50

[2] Chen M,Majji M.Review of space habitat designs for long term space explorations.Prog Aerosp Sci2021;122:100692

[3] Martinelli A,Galand Q.An advanced light scattering apparatus for investigating soft matter onboard the International Space Station.NPJ Microgravity2024;10:115 PMCID:PMC11659601

[4] NASA Home page. https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/space-launch-system/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed 2026-02-4).

[5] Kraft RH. NASA progresses toward artemis II moon mission. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-2/nasa-progresses-toward-artemis-ii-moon-mission/ (accessed 2026-02-4)

[6] Arianespace Home page. https://newsroom.arianespace.com/with-ariane-6-arianespace-successfully-launches-copernicus-sentinel-1d-satellite?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed 2026-02-4).

[7] Yamaguchi M. Japan successfully launches new cargo spacecraft to deliver supplies to International Space Station. https://apnews.com/article/japan-space-rocket-h3-iss-6b4384acb177c6b8f9c41fa7005b6691 (accessed 2026-02-4)

[8] Robinson-Smith W. SpaceX to launch 4 Falcon Heavy rockets as part of newest U.S. national security missions award. https://spaceflightnow.com/2025/10/04/spacex-to-launch-4-falcon-heavy-rockets-as-part-of-newest-u-s-national-security-missions-award/?utm_source=chatgpt.com (accessed 2026-02-4)

[9] Dunn M. Blue origin launches huge rocket carrying twin NASA spacecraft to Mars. https://apnews.com/article/blue-origin-mars-nasa-new-glenn-bezos-4e3e6c380b8294b557618a6fea92282b (accessed 2026-02-4)

[10] Data Page: annual number of objects launched into space. https://archive.ourworldindata.org/20250909-093708/grapher/yearly-number-of-objects-launched-into-outer-space.html (accessed 2026-02-4).

[11] Alta sets flexible solar record with 29.1% GaAs cell. https://optics.org/news/9/12/19?utm (accessed 2026-02-4)

[12] Conway EJ,Heinbockel JH. GaAs solar cells for space applications. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19800064033 (accessed 2026-02-4)

[13] Min H,Kim J.Perovskite solar cells with atomically coherent interlayers on SnO₂ electrodes.Nature2021;598:444-50

[14] Best Research-Cell Efficiency Chart. https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html (accessed 2026-02-4).

[15] Delmas W,Arteaga J.Evaluation of hybrid perovskite prototypes after 10-month space flight on the international space station.Adv Energy Mater2023;13:2203920

[16] Mohanty PK.Cosmic ray sources and detectors.Eur Phys J Spec Top2025;234:5009-19

[17] Hisamatsu T,Matsuda S,Wakow Y.Radiation degradation of large fluence irradiated space silicon solar cells.Sol Energ Mat Sol Cells1998;50:331-8

[18] Raya-Armenta JM,Vasquez JC.A short review of radiation-induced degradation of III-V photovoltaic cells for space applications.Sol Energ Mat Sol Cells2021;233:111379

[19] Inguimbert C.Equivalent displacement damage dose for on-orbit space applications.IEEE Trans Nucl Sci2012;59:3117-25

[20] Messenger SR,Burke EA,Xapsos MA.Modeling solar cell degradation in space: a comparison of the NRL displacement damage dose and the JPL equivalent fluence approaches.Prog Photovolt Res Appl2001;9:103-21

[21] Neitzert H,Kunst M.Electroluminescence efficiency degradation of crystalline silicon solar cells after irradiation with protons in the energy range between 0.8 MeV and 65 MeV.Phys Status Solidi2008;245:1877-83

[22] Durant BK,Singh S,Eperon GE.Tolerance of perovskite solar cells to targeted proton irradiation and electronic ionization induced healing.ACS Energy Lett2021;6:2362-8

[23] Lang F,Bundesmann J.Radiation hardness and self-healing of perovskite solar cells.Adv Mater2016;28:8726-31

[24] Nie W,Neukirch AJ.Light-activated photocurrent degradation and self-healing in perovskite solar cells.Nat Commun2016;7:11574 PMCID:PMC4873646

[25] Yuan Q,Shi C,Sun C.Advances in self-healing perovskite solar cells enabled by dynamic polymer bonds.Macromol Rapid Commun2025;46:e2400630

[26] Kirmani AR,Ni Z.Unraveling radiation damage and healing mechanisms in halide perovskites using energy-tuned dual irradiation dosing.Nat Commun2024;15:696 PMCID:PMC10810841

[27] Brus VV,Bundesmann J.Defect dynamics in proton irradiated CH₃NH₃PbI₃ perovskite solar cells.Adv Elect Mater2017;3:1600438

[28] Miyazawa Y,Chen HW.Tolerance of perovskite solar cell to high-energy particle irradiations in space environment.iScience2018;2:148-55 PMCID:PMC6136902

[29] Keleş DG,Karadeniz S.A study of proton radiation effects on a silicon based solar cell.Gazi Univ J Sci Part A Eng Innov2023;10:105-12

[30] Lin T,Kanai A.Radiation resistant chalcopyrite CIGS solar cells: proton damage shielding with Cs treatment and defect healing via heat-light soaking.J Mater Chem A2024;12:7536-48

[31] Anspaugh BE. Radiation effects in silicon and gallium arsenide solar cells using isotropic and normally incident radiation. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19840026722 (accessed 2026-02-4)

[32] Yamaguchi M,Matsuda S.Mechanism for the anomalous degradation of Si solar cells induced by high fluence 1 MeV electron irradiation.Appl Phys Lett1996;68:3141-3

[33] Boldyreva AG,Zhidkov IS.Unravelling the material composition effects on the gamma ray stability of lead halide perovskite solar cells: MAPbI₃ breaks the records.J Phys Chem Lett2020;11:2630-6

[34] Ginisty F,Ecoffet R.South Atlantic anomaly evolution seen by the proton flux.JGR Space Phys2024;129:e2023JA032186

[35] Afshari H,Sourabh S.Radiation tolerance and self-healing in triple halide perovskite solar cells.APL Energy2023;1:026105

[36] Zhao P,Guo Y.A new all-inorganic vacancy-ordered double perovskite Cs₂CrI₆ for high-performance photovoltaic cells and alpha-particle detection in space environment.Mater Today Phys2021;20:100446

[37] Shim H,Chandler C.Enhancing radiation resilience of wide-band-gap perovskite solar cells for space applications via A-site cation stabilization with PDAI₂.Joule2025;9:102043

[38] Akbulatov AF,Dremova NN.Light or heat: what is killing lead halide perovskites under solar cell operation conditions?.J Phys Chem Lett2020;11:333-9

[39] Juarez-Perez EJ,Raga SR,Qi Y.Thermal degradation of CH₃NH₃PbI₃ perovskite into NH₃ and CH₃I gases observed by coupled thermogravimetry-mass spectrometry analysis.Energy Environ Sci2016;9:3406-10

[40] Tu Y,Yang X.Mixed-cation perovskite solar cells in space.Sci China Phys Mech Astron2019;62:9356

[41] Cardinaletti I,Nagels S.Organic and perovskite solar cells for space applications.Sol Energ Mat Sol Cells2018;182:121-7

[42] Reb LK,Predeschly B.Perovskite and organic solar cells on a rocket flight.Joule2020;4:1880-92

[43] Lee MM,Miyasaka T,Snaith HJ.Efficient hybrid solar cells based on meso-superstructured organometal halide perovskites.Science2012;338:643-7

[44] Hu Y,Liu Y.Flexible perovskite solar cells with high power-per-weight: progress, application, and perspectives.ACS Energy Lett2021;6:2917-43

[45] Wang Z,Yan Y.Al₂O₃ nanoparticles as surface modifier enables deposition of high quality perovskite films for ultra-flexible photovoltaics.Adv Powder Mater2024;3:100142

[46] Li Z,Wan Z.Boosting mechanical durability under high humidity by bioinspired multisite polymer for high-efficiency flexible perovskite solar cells.Nat Commun2025;16:1771 PMCID:PMC11840045

[47] Lee M,Kim DS,Jun Y.Efficient, durable and flexible perovskite photovoltaic devices with Ag-embedded ITO as the top electrode on a metal substrate.J Mater Chem A2015;3:14592-7

[48] Kaltenbrunner M,Głowacki ED.Flexible high power-per-weight perovskite solar cells with chromium oxide-metal contacts for improved stability in air.Nat Mater2015;14:1032-9

[49] Kang S,Cho S.Ultrathin, lightweight and flexible perovskite solar cells with an excellent power-per-weight performance.J Mater Chem A2019;7:1107-14

[50] Zhang H,Li D.Perovskite films: toward all room-temperature, solution-processed, high-performance planar perovskite solar cells: a new scheme of pyridine-promoted perovskite formation (Adv. Mater. 13/2017).Adv Mater2017;29:adma.201770091

[51] Zhang H,Li D.Toward all room-temperature, solution-processed, high-performance planar perovskite solar cells: a new scheme of pyridine-promoted perovskite formation.Adv Mater2017;29:1604695

[52] Panagiotopoulos A,Kakavelakis G.A critical perspective for emerging ultra-thin solar cells with ultra-high power-per-weight outputs.Appl Phys Rev2023;10:041303

[53] Zhang X,Li D.High weight-specific power density of thin-film amorphous silicon solar cells on graphene papers.Nanoscale Res Lett2019;14:324 PMCID:PMC6795669

[54] Jeong S,Cui Y.All-back-contact ultra-thin silicon nanocone solar cells with 13.7% power conversion efficiency.Nat Commun2013;4:2950

[55] Kim J,Song K,Shin JC.Ultra-thin flexible GaAs photovoltaics in vertical forms printed on metal surfaces without interlayer adhesives.Appl Phys Lett2016;108:253101

[56] Cho S,Kim J,Ju H.Ultrathin GaAs photovoltaic arrays integrated on a 1.4 µm polymer substrate for high flexibility, a lightweight design, and high specific power.Adv Mater Technol2022;7:2200344

[57] Algora C,Palacios PF.Flexible GaInP/Ga(In)As/Ge triple-junction space solar cells with a simple fabrication process based on Ge substrate thinning demonstrate power-to-mass ratios of 1.3 kW/kg.Sol Energ Mat Sol Cells2025;292:113817

[58] Li X,Liu Z.Progress and challenges toward effective flexible perovskite solar cells.Nanomicro Lett2023;15:206 PMCID:PMC10471566

[59] Gao Y,Long C.Flexible perovskite solar cells: from materials and device architectures to applications.ACS Energy Lett2022;7:1412-45

[60] Li Y,Li F.Research of aging test on high T_g colorless polyimide.J Appl Polym Sci2024;141:e55286

[61] Liu Y,Wu D.Synthetic strategies for highly transparent and colorless polyimide film.J Appl Polym Sci2022;139:e52604

[62] Fang Y,Kang J.Colorless transparent and thermally stable terphenyl polyimides with various small side groups for substrate application.Eur Polym J2024;202:112640

[63] Lee G,Choi YW.Ultra-flexible perovskite solar cells with crumpling durability: toward a wearable power source.Energy Environ Sci2019;12:3182-91

[64] Bu T,Zheng F.Universal passivation strategy to slot-die printed SnO₂ for hysteresis-free efficient flexible perovskite solar module.Nat Commun2018;9:4609 PMCID:PMC6214926

[65] Bu T,Li J.Low-temperature presynthesized crystalline tin oxide for efficient flexible perovskite solar cells and modules.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2018;10:14922-9

[66] Duan M,Li T.Mechanically stable screen-printed flexible perovskite solar cells via selective self-assembled siloxane coupling agents.NPJ Flex Electron2025;9:407

[67] Yeo J,Jang D.Reduced graphene oxide-assisted crystallization of perovskite via solution-process for efficient and stable planar solar cells with module-scales.Nano Energy2016;30:667-76

[68] Lee M,Kim DS.Flexible organo-metal halide perovskite solar cells on a Ti metal substrate.J Mater Chem A2015;3:4129-33

[69] Wang X,Xu W.TiO₂ nanotube arrays based flexible perovskite solar cells with transparent carbon nanotube electrode.Nano Energy2015;11:728-35

[70] Kumar A,Sundar Ghosh D.Kitchen-grade aluminium foil as dual-purpose substrate-cum-electrode for ultrathin, ultralight, and bendable perovskite solar cells.Sol Energ Mat Sol Cells2024;268:112737

[71] Peleg R. Printed flexible solar cells by CSIRO launched on Space Machine Company’s Optimus-1 satellite, as part of Space X’s Transporter-10 mission. https://www.perovskite-info.com/printed-flexible-solar-cells-csiro-launched-space-machine-company-s-optimus-1 (accessed 2026-02-4)

[72] Ma Y,Su X,Zhao Q.Recent progress toward commercialization of flexible perovskite solar cells: from materials and structures to mechanical stabilities.Adv Energy Sustain Res2023;4:2200133

[73] Sears KK,Gao M,Easton CD.ITO-free flexible perovskite solar cells based on roll-to-roll, slot-die coated silver nanowire electrodes.Sol RRL2017;1:1700059

[74] Lu H,Zhang H,Choy WC.Room-temperature solution-processed and metal oxide-free nano-composite for the flexible transparent bottom electrode of perovskite solar cells.Nanoscale2016;8:5946-53

[75] Jung HS,Park N.Flexible perovskite solar cells.Joule2019;3:1850-80

[76] Li Y,Yang YM.High-efficiency robust perovskite solar cells on ultrathin flexible substrates.Nat Commun2016;7:10214 PMCID:PMC4729901

[77] Liu D,Xu W.Strain relaxation in halide perovskites via 2D/3D perovskite heterojunction formation.Sci Adv2025;11:eadu3459 PMCID:PMC12204152

[78] Tang G,Cao X,Zhang H.A review on recent advances in flexible perovskite solar cells.Solar RRL2025;9:2400844

[79] Li Y,Cao J.High performance flexible Sn-Pb mixed perovskite solar cells enabled by a crosslinking additive.NPJ Flex Electron2023;7:253

[80] Jin J,Ming Y.Spontaneous bifacial capping of perovskite film for efficient and mechanically stable flexible solar cell.Nat Commun2025;16:90 PMCID:PMC11696051

[81] Aristidou N,Sanchez-Molina I.Fast oxygen diffusion and iodide defects mediate oxygen-induced degradation of perovskite solar cells.Nat Commun2017;8:15218 PMCID:PMC5437277

[82] Seid BA,Peña-Camargo F.Understanding and mitigating atomic oxygen-induced degradation of perovskite solar cells for near-earth space applications.Small2024;20:e2311097

[83] Wang Y,Leung T.Encapsulation and Stability testing of perovskite solar cells for real life applications.ACS Mater Au2022;2:215-36 PMCID:PMC9888620

[84] Yang W,Xiao C,Shi T.A review of encapsulation methods and geometric improvements of perovskite solar cells and modules for mass production and commercialization.Nano Mater Sci2025;7:790-809

[85] Zhang C,Gao M,Wu J.Electrostatically sprayed flexible encapsulation for high-performance III-V solar cells.Solar RRL2024;8:2300836

[86] Bush ME,Erickson SS.Space environment considerations for perovskite solar cell operations: a review.Acta Astronaut2025;235:235-50

[87] Zheng Y,Shen Z.Advancing perovskite photovoltaics for space: critical stability testing guidelines.Adv Photon2025;7:030502

[88] Kirmani AR,Vansant KT.Metal oxide barrier layers for terrestrial and space perovskite photovoltaics.Nat Energy2023;8:191-202

[89] Ajdič Ž,Topič M.The effect of Al₂O₃ on the performance of perovskite solar cells.Solar RRL2024;8:2400247

[90] Li J,Qi W.Encapsulation of perovskite solar cells for enhanced stability: structures, materials and characterization.J Power Sources2021;485:229313

[91] Huang C,Zhao L,Wei Q.Advances in atomic oxygen resistant polyimide composite films.Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf2023;168:107459

[92] Zhou S,Zou L,Wang Y.Mechanism analysis and potential applications of atomic oxygen erosion protection for kapton-type polyimide based on molecular dynamics simulations.Polymers2024;16:1687 PMCID:PMC11207231

[93] Mariani P,Barichello J.Low-temperature strain-free encapsulation for perovskite solar cells and modules passing multifaceted accelerated ageing tests.Nat Commun2024;15:4552 PMCID:PMC11137052

[94] Wang T,Cao Q.Room temperature nondestructive encapsulation via self-crosslinked fluorosilicone polymer enables damp heat-stable sustainable perovskite solar cells.Nat Commun2023;14:1342 PMCID:PMC10008636

[95] Xue DJ,Liu SC.Regulating strain in perovskite thin films through charge-transport layers.Nat Commun2020;11:1514 PMCID:PMC7090003

[96] Dailey M,Printz AD.Residual film stresses in perovskite solar cells: origins, effects, and mitigation strategies.ACS Omega2021;6:30214-23 PMCID:PMC8600516

[97] Wu J,Li Z.Strain in perovskite solar cells: origins, impacts and regulation.Natl Sci Rev2021;8:nwab047 PMCID:PMC8363326

[98] Vansant KT,Patel JB.Combined stress testing of perovskite solar cells for stable operation in space.ACS Appl Energy Mater2023;6:10319-26

[99] Balan MC,Jäntschi L.Preliminary results on design and implementation of a solar radiation monitoring system.Snesors2008;8:963-78 PMCID:PMC3927518

[100] Ji J,Jiang H.Two-stage ultraviolet degradation of perovskite solar cells induced by the oxygen vacancy-Ti⁴⁺ states.iScience2020;23:101013 PMCID:PMC7160572

[101] Farooq A,Moghadamzadeh S.Spectral dependence of degradation under ultraviolet light in perovskite solar cells.ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2018;10:21985-90

[102] Berhe TA,Chen C.Organometal halide perovskite solar cells: degradation and stability.Energy Environ Sci2016;9:323-56

[103] Lee SW,Bae S.UV degradation and recovery of perovskite solar cells.Sci Rep2016;6:38150 PMCID:PMC5133559

[104] Gao J,Liu C.Solar water splitting with perovskite/silicon tandem cell and TiC-supported Pt nanocluster electrocatalyst.Joule2019;3:2930-41

[105] Liu J,Ding L.Perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells with bilayer interface passivation.Nature2024;635:596-603

[106] Liu Z,Wei M.All-perovskite tandem solar cells achieving >29% efficiency with improved (100) orientation in wide-bandgap perovskites.Nat Mater2025;24:252-9

[107] Lin R,Lu Q.All-perovskite tandem solar cells with 3D/3D bilayer perovskite heterojunction.Nature2023;620:994-1000

[108] Al-Ashouri A,Li B.Monolithic perovskite/silicon tandem solar cell with >29% efficiency by enhanced hole extraction.Science2020;370:1300-9

[109] Quitsch WA,Pfingsten O.The role of excitation energy in photobrightening and photodegradation of halide perovskite thin films.J Phys Chem Lett2018;9:2062-9

[110] Roose B,Abate A.The role of charge selective contacts in perovskite solar cell stability.Adv Energy Mater2019;9:1803140

[111] Dong Q,Zhang Q.Discontinuous SnO₂ derived blended-interfacial-layer in mesoscopic perovskite solar cells: minimizing electron transfer resistance and improving stability.Nano Energy2017;38:358-67

[112] Dong Q,Wang K.Insight into perovskite solar cells based on SnO₂ compact electron-selective layer.J Phys Chem C2015;119:10212-7

[113] Arora N,Akin S.Low-cost and highly efficient carbon-based perovskite solar cells exhibiting excellent long-term operational and UV stability.Small2019;15:e1904746

[114] Zhang M,Wang Y.Simple route to interconnected, hierarchically structured, porous Zn₂SnO₄ nanospheres as electron transport layer for efficient perovskite solar cells.Nano Energy2020;71:104620

[115] Standard: qualification and quality requirements for space solar cells (AIAA S-111A-2014). Washington: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc, 2014. https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/book/10.2514/4.102806 (accessed 2026-02-4)

[116] Dong Z,Wang H.High-temperature perovskite solar cells.Solar RRL2021;5:2100370

[117] Moot T,McAndrews G.Temperature coefficients of perovskite photovoltaics for energy yield calculations.ACS Energy Lett2021;6:2038-47 PMCID:PMC10157636

[118] Qin J,Yin C.Carrier dynamics and evaluation of lasing actions in halide perovskites.Trends Chem2021;3:34-46

[119] Alnuaimi A,Nayfeh A.Performance of planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells under light concentration.AIP Advances2016;6:115012

[120] Saidaminov MI,Comin R.Planar-integrated single-crystalline perovskite photodetectors.Nat Commun2015;6:8724 PMCID:PMC4667636

[121] Nishimura K,Hirotani D.Lead-free tin-halide perovskite solar cells with 13% efficiency.Nano Energy2020;74:104858

[122] Mavlonov A,Kawano Y,Hayakawa A.Investigating the stability of flexible perovskite solar cell modules in heat and damp-heat environments.Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells2025;282:113410

[123] Mavlonov A,Kawano Y.Thermal stability test on flexible perovskite solar cell modules to estimate activation energy of degradation on temperature.Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells2024;277:113148

[124] Philippe B,Lindblad R.Chemical and electronic structure characterization of lead halide perovskites and stability behavior under different exposures - A photoelectron spectroscopy investigation.Chem Mater2015;27:1720-31

[125] Kim K,Kim C.Non-volatile solid-state 4-(N-carbazolyl)pyridine additive for perovskite solar cells with improved thermal and operational stability.Nat Energy2025;10:1427-38

[126] Dong B,Li Y.Self-assembled bilayer for perovskite solar cells with improved tolerance against thermal stresses.Nat Energy2025;10:342-53

[127] Kim B,Park N.First-principles identification of the charge-shifting mechanism and ferroelectricity in hybrid halide perovskites.Sci Rep2020;10:19635 PMCID:PMC7665211

[128] Whitfield PS,Guise WE.Structures, phase transitions and tricritical behavior of the hybrid perovskite methyl ammonium lead iodide.Sci Rep2016;6:35685. PMCID:PMC5073364

[129] Wu J,Wang H.Phase transition kinetics of MAPbI₃ for tetragonal-to-orthorhombic evolution.JACS Au2023;3:1205-12 PMCID:PMC10131189

[130] Xu Y,Zhang Z.Evolved photovoltaic performance of MAPbI₃ and FAPbI₃-based perovskite solar cells in low-temperatures.Energy Mater2024;4:400034.

[131] Li J,Mohtar MN.Advances in multi-phase FAPbI₃ perovskite: another perspective on photo-inactive δ-phase.J Semicond2025;46:051804

[132] Liang, Y, Li, F, Cui, X. Toward stabilization of formamidinium lead iodide perovskites by defect control and composition engineering.Nat Commun2024;15:1707 PMCID:PMC10894298

[133] Grancini G.Dimensional tailoring of hybrid perovskites for photovoltaics.Nat Rev Mater2019;4:4-22

[134] Wang B,Zhang M.The charge carrier dynamics, efficiency and stability of two-dimensional material-based perovskite solar cells.Chem Soc Rev2019;48:4854-91

[135] Asada T,Murata F,Sugiyama H.Influence of the electron transport layer on the performance of perovskite solar cells under low illuminance conditions.ACS Omega2024;9:32893-900 PMCID:PMC11292622

[136] Yang G,Liu K.Stable and low-photovoltage-loss perovskite solar cells by multifunctional passivation.Nat Photon2021;15:681-9

[137] Gu Y,Li N,Zhou C.Effect of carrier mobility on performance of perovskite solar cells.Chin Phys B2019;28:048802

[138] Glowienka D.Light intensity analysis of photovoltaic parameters for perovskite solar cells.Adv Mater2022;34:e2105920 PMCID:PMC11469270

[139] Raifuku I,Ito S.Characteristics of perovskite solar cells under low-illuminance conditions.J Phys Chem C2016;120:18986-90

[140] Guo Z,Miyasaka T.Halide perovskites for indoor photovoltaics: the next possibility.ACS Energy Lett2023;8:90-5

[141] Vieira R,Dhimish M.A comprehensive review on bypass diode application on photovoltaic modules.Energies2020;13:2472

[142] Tayagaki T,Yamamoto K,Yoshita M.Effects of partial shading and temperature-dependent reverse bias behaviour on degradation in perovskite photovoltaic modules.Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells2025;279:113229

[143] Bartusiak MF.Proton-induced coloring of multicomponent glasses.Appl Opt1979;18:3342-6

[144] Gusarov AI,Hermanne A.Refractive-index changes caused by proton radiation in silicate optical glasses.Appl Opt2002;41:678-84

[145] Lang F,Bundesmann J.Efficient minority carrier detrapping mediating the radiation hardness of triple-cation perovskite solar cells under proton irradiation.Energy Environ Sci2019;12:1634-47

[146] Daly EJ,Hilgers A. Space environment analysis: experience and trends. In: Environment modeling for space-based applications, Symposium Proceedings (ESA SP-392). ESTEC Noordwijk, 18-20 September 1996. https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996ESASP.392...15D (accessed 2026-02-4)

[147] Boldyreva AG,Tsarev SA.γ-ray-induced degradation in the triple-cation perovskite solar cells.J Phys Chem Lett2019;10:813-8

[148] Unger EL,Suchan K,Korte L.Roadmap and roadblocks for the band gap tunability of metal halide perovskites.J Mater Chem A2017;5:11401-9

[149] Hoke ET,Dohner ER,Karunadasa HI.Reversible photo-induced trap formation in mixed-halide hybrid perovskites for photovoltaics.Chem Sci2015;6:613-7 PMCID:PMC5491962

[150] Koshiishi H,Chishiki A,Omodaka T.Evaluation of the neutron radiation environment inside the International Space Station based on the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector experiment.Radiat Meas2007;42:1510-20

[151] Armstrong TW.Predictions of secondary neutrons and their importance to radiation effects inside the International Space Station.Radiat Meas2001;33:229-34

[152] Paternò GM,Santarelli L.Perovskite solar cell resilience to fast neutrons.Sustain Energy Fuels2019;3:2561-6

[153] Kim S,Park J.Cerium-doped oxide-based materials for energy and environmental applications.Crystals2023;13:1631

[154] Wilt D,Jenkins P.Novel flexible solar cell coverglass for space photovoltaic devices. In 2013 IEEE 39th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 16-21 June, 2013; pp. 2835-9.

[155] Yan G,Liu J,Wu R.Electroluminescence analysis of VOC degradation of individual subcell in GaInP/GaAs/Ge space solar cells irradiated by 1.0 MeV electrons.J Lumin2020;219:116905

[156] Bertotti L,Garner J.The ASGA experiment on EURECA platform: testing of advanced GaAs solar cells in LEO. In Conference Record of the Twentieth IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, September 26-30, 1988; pp. 1002-6.

[157] Aburaya T.Analysis of 10 years' flight data of solar cell monitor on ETS-V.Solar Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells2001;68:15-22

[158] Verduci R,Brunetti G.Solar energy in space applications: review and technology perspectives.Adv Energy Mater2022;12:2200125

[159] Jia C,Wan Z.Ultra-thin perovskite solar cells with high specific power density based on colorless polyimide substrates.Nano Energy2024;131:110259

[160] Hailegnaw B,Putz C.Flexible quasi-2D perovskite solar cells with high specific power and improved stability for energy-autonomous drones.Nat Energy2024;9:677-90

[161] Liu P,Niu T.Ambient scalable fabrication of high-performance flexible perovskite solar cells.Energy Environ Sci2024;17:7069-80

[162] Lee JH,Hardy BS.On-orbit characterization of space solar cells on nano-satellites. In 2016 IEEE 43rd Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 5-10 June, 2016; pp. 1331-6.

[163] Leipold M,Garner C.Solar sail technology development and demonstration.Acta Astronaut2003;52:317-26

[164] Chamberlain MK,Lapointe M.On-orbit flight testing of the roll-out solar array.Acta Astronaut2021;179:407-14

[165] Yun Y,Kim S.Flexible fabric-based GaAs thin-film solar cell for wearable energy harvesting applications.Sol Energ Mat Sol Cells2022;246:111930

[166] Gao D,Sun X.High-efficiency perovskite solar cells enabled by suppressing intermolecular aggregation in hole-selective contacts.Nat Photon2025;19:1070-7

[167] Wang G,Tang H.27.09%-efficiency silicon heterojunction back contact solar cell and going beyond.Nat Commun2024;15:8931 PMCID:PMC11484749

[168] France RM,Song T.Triple-junction solar cells with 39.5% terrestrial and 34.2% space efficiency enabled by thick quantum well superlattices.Joule2022;6:1121-35

[169] Statler RL. Three-year performance of the NTS-2 solar cell experiment. 1980. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19810009037/downloads/19810009037.pdf (accessed 2026-02-4)

[170] Li R,Sun J.Challenges and perspectives for the perovskite module research.Chem2025;11:102542

[171] Nikbakht H,Vesce L.Upscaling perovskite photovoltaics: from 156 cm² modules to 073 M² panels.Adv Sci2025;12:e2416316 PMCID:PMC12165116

[172] Yan B,Tao S.Development and challenges of large space flexible solar arrays.SSPW2025;2:33-42

[173] Horowitz KAW,Smith B. A techno-economic analysis and cost reduction roadmap for III-V solar cells. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2018. https://docs.nlr.gov/docs/fy19osti/72103.pdf (accessed 2026-02-4).

[174] Woodhouse M,Ramdas A. Crystalline silicon photovoltaic module manufacturing costs and sustainable pricing: 1H 2018 Benchmark and cost reduction road map. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2019. https://docs.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/72134.pdf (accessed 2026-02-4).

[175] Liu X,Wang B.Perovskite solar modules with high efficiency exceeding 20%: from laboratory to industrial community.Joule2025;9:102056

[176] Cai M,Chen H,Qiang Y.Cost-performance analysis of perovskite solar modules.Adv Sci2017;4:1600269 PMCID:PMC5238749

[177] Sengupta A,Sharma B.Commercialization of perovskite solar cells: opportunities and challenges.Sustain Energy Fuels2025;9:3999-4022

[178] Zhao G,Beynon D.Perovskite photovoltaics for aerospace applications - life cycle assessment and cost analysis.Solar Energy2024;274:112602

[179] Boley AC.Satellite mega-constellations create risks in Low Earth Orbit, the atmosphere and on Earth.Sci Rep2021;11:10642 PMCID:PMC8137964

[180] Boretti A.A narrative review of solar electric propulsion for space missions: technological progress, market opportunities, geopolitical considerations, and safety challenges.J Space Saf Eng2025;12:549-59

[181] Shi L,Young TL.Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses of encapsulated stable perovskite solar cells.Science2020;368:eaba2412

[182] Papež N,Ţălu Ş.Overview of the current state of gallium arsenide-based solar cells.Materials2021;14:3075 PMCID:PMC8200097

[183] Shin G,Lee H.Reliability analysis of the 300W GaInP/GaAs/Ge solar cell array using PCM.J Astron Space Sci2019;36:69-74

[184] Vaillon R,Lamnatou C.Solar cells operating under thermal stress.Cell Rep Phys Sci2020;1:100267

[185] Angmo D,Liang D.Toward rollable printed perovskite solar cells for deployment in low-earth orbit space applications.ACS Appl Energy Mater2024;7:1777-91

[186] Manning CG. Technology readiness levels. https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/somd/space-communications-navigation-program/technology-readiness-levels/ (accessed 2026-02-4)