Solid-State Lithium Batteries with Liquid Additives: A Critical Review of Progress and Challenges

Xingwen Yu; Zizhou He; Zhangsen Chen; Serdar Yildirim; Kayla Smith; James Wu; Arumugam Manthiram; Siyi Cao; Yudong Wang; Nengneng Xu; S. Pamir Alpay; Radenka Maric; Shuhui Sun; Xiao-Dong Zhou

doi:10.1007/s41918-025-00273-w

Electrochemical Energy Reviews ›› 2026, Vol. 9 ›› Issue (1) :3 DOI: 10.1007/s41918-025-00273-w

Review Article

review-article

Solid-State Lithium Batteries with Liquid Additives: A Critical Review of Progress and Challenges

Author information +

¹Center for Clean Energy Engineering, University of Connecticut, 06269, Storrs, CT, USA

²Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), Centre Énergie Matériaux Télécommunications, J3X 1P7, Varennes, QC, Canada

³Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Dokuz Eylül University, 35390, Buca, Izmir, Turkey

⁴Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Connecticut, 06269, Storrs, CT, USA

⁵, NASA Glenn Research Center, 44135, Cleveland, OH, USA

⁶Materials Science and Engineering Program and Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, 78666, Austin, TX, USA

⁷Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, 06269, Storrs, CT, USA

^a Shuhui.Sun@inrs.ca

^b xiao-dong.zhou@uconn.edu

Dr. Xingwen Yu

Xingwen Yu is a seasoned scientist, engineer, and research professor with over 20 years of experience in electrochemical energy storage and conversion. He holds a Ph.D. degree in Materials Science and Engineering, a Master’s degree in Electrochemistry, and a Bachelor’s degree in Chemical Engineering. Dr. Yu has worked across academia and industry, focusing on cutting-edge research and advanced technologies for batteries and fuel cells. His expertise spans from fundamental R&D in electrochemical energy materials to production manufacturing processes. With many years in academic research and industry leadership roles, Dr. Xingwen Yu brings a unique perspective bridging scientific innovation, practical engineering, and commercialization.

Dr. Zizhou He

Zizhou He is a postdoctoral research associate at the Center for Clean Energy Engineering (C2E2) at the University of Connecticut, working under Professor Xiao-Dong Zhou. He received his Ph.D. degree in Systems Engineering with a concentration in Chemical Engineering from the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2023. His doctoral research focused on the synthesis, characterization, and performance evaluation of battery materials for lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries. At C2E2, his work centers on the physical and electrochemical characterization of advanced materials and devices across various project related energy storage and conversion systems.

Zhangsen Chen

Zhangsen Chen obtained his BS degree in 2014 and his master’s degree in 2017, both from Fuzhou University, and his Ph.D. degree in Energy and Material Science from Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), University of Québec, in 2023. He is currently a joint postdoctoral fellow at INRS and McGill University. His research interests focus on the development of advanced nanomaterials for H₂ production and CO₂ conversion to value-added chemicals and fuels.

Dr. Serdar Yildirim

Serdar Yildirim is currently a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Center for Clean Energy Engineering, University of Connecticut, and an Associate Professor in Metallurgy and Materials Engineering at Dokuz Eylül University. He earned his Ph.D. degree in Metallurgy and Materials Engineering from Dokuz Eylül University in 2017. His research focuses on the synthesis and development of electrocatalysts for energy applications, with broader expertise in nanomaterial synthesis, luminescent materials, and additive manufacturing technologies.

Kayla Smith

Kayla Smith is a Ph.D. student in Chemical Engineering at the University of Connecticut. She earned her bachelor’s degree in Chemical Engineering from the University of Connecticut in 2024. As a Graduate Research Assistant at the Center for Clean Energy Engineering, her research focuses on the development of electrochemical energy storage systems, particularly zinc–air and zinc–CO₂ batteries.

Dr. James Wu

James Wu is a Research Scientist at NASA Glenn Research Center. He earned his Ph.D. degree in Chemistry from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He possesses many years of combined postdoctoral, industrial and government R&D experiences on developing electrocatalysts, environmental catalysts, energy storage materials, batteries, and technologies. He is currently working on developing safe and advanced battery technologies.

Professor Arumugam Manthiram

Arumugam Manthiram is the George T. and Gladys H. Abell Endowed Chair of Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin. His research is focused on electrodes and electrolytes for rechargeable batteries, including lithium-ion, sodium-ion, lithium–sulfur, sodium–sulfur, and all-solid-state batteries. He has authored over 1 000 journal articles with more than 137 000 citations and an h-index of 180. He has mentored around 300 students and postdoctoral researchers. He has been honored with numerous awards, including the inaugural John B. Goodenough Award and Olin Palladium Award from the Electrochemical Society.

Siyi Cao

Siyi Cao received his BS degree from the University of Jinan in 2024 and is currently pursuing a master’s degree in Energy and Material Science under the supervision of Prof. Shuhui Sun at the Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), University of Québec. His research focuses on the design of electrolytes and electrodes for lithium and lithium-free batteries.

Dr. Yudong Wang

Yudong Wang is an assistant research professor at Center for Clean Energy Engineering, University of Connecticut. Before that, he obtained his Ph.D. degree in System Engineering with Chemical Engineering concentration and continued as a research assistant professor at University of Louisiana at Lafayette. He has worked on energy conversion and energy storage since he started his Ph.D. study in 2016. Dr. Wang’s research focuses on advanced materials and systems for energy conversion and storage, including batteries, fuel cells, and hydrogen technologies.

Dr. Nengneng Xu

Nengneng Xu is an Assistant Research Professor at the Center for Clean Energy Engineering, University of Connecticut. He received his PhD degree from Donghua University. His current research focuses on the controllable design of crucial electrode materials and their corresponding catalytic mechanisms in the fields of fuel cells, metal–air batteries, water electrolysis, and small molecule electrocatalysis (CH₄ oxidation and CO₂ reduction reactions).

Dr. S. Pamir Alpay

S. Pamir Alpay is the Board of Trustees Distinguished Professor in Materials Science & Engineering (with a joint appointment in Physics) and currently serves as Vice President for Research, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship at the University of Connecticut. He earned his Ph.D. degree in Materials Science & Engineering from the University of Maryland in 1999. His research spans computational materials science, multiscale modeling, ferroelectrics and multiferroics, phase transformations, smart/tunable dielectrics, and advanced manufacturing. He has published over 200 peer-reviewed articles, is a fellow of APS, the American Ceramic Society, and ASM, and leads industry–academic collaborations.

Dr. Radenka Maric

Radenka Maric is the 17th President of the University of Connecticut and a Board of Trustees Distinguished Professor in Sustainable Energy, with joint appointments in Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering and Materials Science & Engineering. She earned her Ph.D. degree in Materials Science and Energy from Kyoto University. Her research focuses on clean energy technologies, including materials for fuel cells and batteries, thin films, hydrogen generation, and advanced manufacturing processes such as reactive spray deposition. She is a Fellow of The Electrochemical Society, the National Academy of Inventors, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Shuhui Sun

Shuhui Sun is a Full Professor at the Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS), center for Energy, Materials, and Telecommunications, Canada. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada (RSC), and Fellow of the Canadian Academy of Engineering (CAE). His current research interests focus on multifunctional nanomaterials for energy conversion and storage applications, including H₂ fuel cells, metal-ion (Li⁺, Na⁺, Zn²⁺) batteries, lithium-metal batteries, metal–air batteries, solid-state batteries, etc. He is also interested in nanostructured photo- and electro-catalysts for H₂ production, CO₂ reduction, and water treatment.

Dr. Xiao-Dong Zhou

Xiao-Dong Zhou is the Connecticut Clean Energy Fund Professor in Sustainable Energy and The Nicholas E. Madonna Chair in Sustainability at the University of Connecticut. He directs the Center for Clean Energy Engineering and holds appointments in Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Materials Science & Engineering. His research spans experimental and theoretical studies of materials and interfaces for energy systems including fuel cells, batteries, and electrolyzers. Dr. Zhou earned his B.S./M.S. degrees in Chemical Engineering from East China University of Science & Technology and his Ph.D. degree in Ceramic Engineering from the University of Missouri–Rolla.

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Abstract

Solid-state lithium batteries (SSLBs) are approaching practical deployment, following breakthroughs in overcoming remaining interfacial transport barriers. A pragmatic solution has emerged: the introduction of a small quantity of liquid electrolyte to wet rough interfaces, restore contact, and open fast-ion pathways. Although such liquid additives are now widely adopted across laboratories, the evidence base remains scattered and terminology inconsistent. This review consolidates recent progress and distills design principles for integrating a fraction of liquid into nominally solid-state batteries. We classify chemistries as conventional salt-in-solvent electrolytes, ionic liquids, and gel polymer electrolytes, and map their implementation at solid electrolyte/electrode interfaces. Mechanisms are discussed through which fractional liquid additives reduce interfacial impedance, suppress void growth, and tune interphase chemistry. Improvements in electrochemical performance, including cycling stability and rate capability, are compared alongside trade-offs such as safety risks (flammability, volatility, parasitic reactions, and lithium penetration). Protocols are outlined to quantify the minimum effective additive content while retaining the intrinsic advantages of SSLBs (high-energy density and superior safety). Finally, future research directions are proposed to guide translation from bench to market, including operando mapping of liquid distribution, durability under practical areal loadings and stack pressures, and scalable delivery methods.

Keywords

Solid-state lithium batteries / Solid electrolyte / Liquid additives / Interfacial impedance / Cycling performance

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Xingwen Yu, Zizhou He, Zhangsen Chen, Serdar Yildirim, Kayla Smith, James Wu, Arumugam Manthiram, Siyi Cao, Yudong Wang, Nengneng Xu, S. Pamir Alpay, Radenka Maric, Shuhui Sun, Xiao-Dong Zhou. Solid-State Lithium Batteries with Liquid Additives: A Critical Review of Progress and Challenges. Electrochemical Energy Reviews, 2026, 9(1): 3 DOI:10.1007/s41918-025-00273-w

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