Valuation of Anode Materials for High-Performance Lithium Batteries: From Graphite to Lithium Metal and Beyond

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries have revolutionized energy storage, yet advanced technologies such as electric vehicles and eVTOLs demand even higher performance and safety. Anodes, the negative electrodes, are crucial in enhancing batteries’ safety, lifespan, and fast-charging capabilities. This review paper comprehensively evaluates the progression of anode materials from traditional graphite to advanced anodes like lithium metal. Graphite anodes, with a capacity of 372 mAh g⁻¹, enabled the first commercial lithium-ion batteries, but future applications require higher energy densities and fast-charging capabilities. Emerging anode materials, including alloying, and conversion types, as well as lithium metal, offer significantly higher capacities, with lithium metal offering a theoretical capacity of 3 860 mAh g⁻¹. However, these advanced anodes face challenges such as volume expansion, high surface reactivity, sluggish Li⁺ kinetics, and unstable lithium deposition morphologies. This review critically examines the electrochemical performance, interfacial properties, mechanical attributes, and stability issues of various anode materials. It further discusses solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation, strategies for enhancing interface stability, and the requirements of anodes for solid-state batteries. Additionally, the review explores potential solutions for limitations with each anode type, highlights innovative anode-free architectures, and evaluates the current and future trends of battery anode industries. Ultimately, this paper aims to guide the development of high-performance anode materials, paving the way for the next generation of efficient, reliable lithium batteries.

Graphical Abstract

Keywords

Lithium-ion batteries / Solid-state batteries / Intercalation anodes / Alloying anodes / Conversion anodes / Graphite / Li-metal anodes / Solid electrolyte interphase (SEI)

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