A Review of Multiscale Mechanical Failures in Lithium-Ion Batteries: Implications for Performance, Lifetime and Safety

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are susceptible to mechanical failures that can occur at various scales, including particle, electrode and overall cell levels. These failures are influenced by a combination of multi-physical fields of electrochemical, mechanical and thermal factors, making them complex and multi-physical in nature. The consequences of these mechanical failures on battery performance, lifetime and safety vary depending on the specific type of failure. However, the complex nature of mechanical degradation in batteries often involves interrelated processes, in which different failure mechanisms interact and evolve. Despite extensive research efforts, the detailed mechanisms behind these failures still require further clarification. To bridge this knowledge gap, this review systematically investigates three key aspects: multiscale mechanical failures; their implications for performance, lifetime and safety; and the interconnections between the different types and scales of the mechanical failures. By adopting a multiscale and multidisciplinary perspective, fragmented ideas from current research are integrated into a comprehensive framework, providing a deeper understanding of the mechanical behaviors and interactions within LIBs. We highlight the main characteristics of mechanical failures in LIBs and present valuable insights and prospects in four key areas of theories, materials, designs and applications, for improving the performance, lifetime and safety of LIBs by addressing current challenges in the field. As a valuable resource, this review may serve as a bridge for researchers from diverse disciplines, facilitating their understanding of mechanical failures in LIBs and encouraging further advancements in the field.

Keywords

Lithium-ion battery / Mechanical failure / Multi-physical fields / Multiscale

References

[1] Cano ZP, Banham D, Ye SY, et al. Batteries and fuel cells for emerging electric vehicle markets. Nat. Energy, 2018, 3: 279-289

[2] Liu BH, Jia YK, Yuan CH, et al. Safety issues and mechanisms of lithium-ion battery cell upon mechanical abusive loading: a review. Energy Storage Mater., 2020, 24: 85-112

[3] de Vasconcelos LS, Xu R, Xu ZR, et al. Chemomechanics of rechargeable batteries: status, theories, and perspectives. Chem. Rev., 2022, 122: 13043-13107

[4] Li RH, Li W, Singh A, et al. Effect of external pressure and internal stress on battery performance and lifespan. Energy Storage Mater., 2022, 52: 395-429

[5] Xu R, Yang Y, Yin F, et al. Heterogeneous damage in Li-ion batteries: experimental analysis and theoretical modeling. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 2019, 129: 160-183

[6] Mukhopadhyay A, Tokranov A, Xiao XC, et al. Stress development due to surface processes in graphite electrodes for Li-ion batteries: a first report. Electrochim. Acta, 2012, 66: 28-37

[7] Singh A, Pal S. Coupled chemo-mechanical modeling of fracture in polycrystalline cathode for lithium-ion battery. Int. J. Plast., 2020, 127

[8] Zhao KJ, Cui Y. Understanding the role of mechanics in energy materials: a perspective. Extreme Mech. Lett., 2016, 9: 347-352

[9] Xu R, Zhao KJ. Electrochemomechanics of electrodes in Li-ion batteries: a review. J. Electrochem. Energy Convers. Storage, 2016, 13

[10] Zhang SL, Zhao KJ, Zhu T, et al. Electrochemomechanical degradation of high-capacity battery electrode materials. Prog. Mater. Sci., 2017, 89: 479-521

[11] Wu XK, Song KF, Zhang XY, et al. Safety issues in lithium ion batteries: materials and cell design. Front. Energy Res., 2019, 7: 65

[12] Mukhopadhyay A, Sheldon BW. Deformation and stress in electrode materials for Li-ion batteries. Prog. Mater. Sci., 2014, 63: 58-116

[13] Pistorio F, Clerici D, Mocera F, et al. Review on the numerical modeling of fracture in active materials for lithium ion batteries. J. Power Sources, 2023, 566

[14] Clerici D, Mocera F, Somà A. Analytical solution for coupled diffusion induced stress model for lithium-ion battery. Energies, 2020, 13: 1717

[15] Christensen J, Newman J. Stress generation and fracture in lithium insertion materials. J. Solid State Electrochem., 2006, 10: 293-319

[16] McDowell MT, Lee SW, Harris JT, et al. In situ TEM of two-phase lithiation of amorphous silicon nanospheres. Nano Lett., 2013, 13: 758-764

[17] Prussin S. Generation and distribution of dislocations by solute diffusion. J. Appl. Phys., 1961, 32: 1876-1881

[18] Cheng YT, Verbrugge MW. The influence of surface mechanics on diffusion induced stresses within spherical nanoparticles. J. Appl. Phys., 2008, 104

[19] Christensen J, Newman J. A mathematical model of stress generation and fracture in lithium manganese oxide. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2006, 153: A1019

[20] Cheng YT, Verbrugge MW. Evolution of stress within a spherical insertion electrode particle under potentiostatic and galvanostatic operation. J. Power Sources, 2009, 190: 453-460

[21] Chen-Min Li J. Physical chemistry of some microstructural phenomena. Metall. Trans. A, 1978, 9: 1353-1380

[22] Zhang XC, Shyy W, Marie Sastry A. Numerical simulation of intercalation-induced stress in Li-ion battery electrode particles. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2007, 154: A910

[23] Korsunsky AM, Sui T, Song BH. Explicit formulae for the internal stress in spherical particles of active material within lithium ion battery cathodes during charging and discharging. Mater. Des., 2015, 69: 247-252

[24] Wu LM, Xiao XH, Wen YH, et al. Three-dimensional finite element study on stress generation in synchrotron X-ray tomography reconstructed nickel-manganese-cobalt based half cell. J. Power Sources, 2016, 336: 8-18

[25] Zhu XC, Chen Y, Chen HF, et al. The diffusion induced stress and cracking behaviour of primary particle for Li-ion battery electrode. Int. J. Mech. Sci., 2020, 178

[26] Walk AC, Huttin M, Kamlah M. Comparison of a phase-field model for intercalation induced stresses in electrode particles of lithium ion batteries for small and finite deformation theory. Eur. J. Mech. A, 2014, 48: 74-82

[27] Wolfenstine J. Critical grain size for microcracking during lithium insertion. J. Power Sources, 1999, 79: 111-113

[28] Zhu M, Park J, Sastry AM. Fracture analysis of the cathode in Li-ion batteries: a simulation study. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2012, 159: A492-A498

[29] Bhandakkar TK, Gao HJ. Cohesive modeling of crack nucleation under diffusion induced stresses in a thin strip: Implications on the critical size for flaw tolerant battery electrodes. Int. J. Solids Struct., 2010, 47: 1424-1434

[30] Huggins RA, Nix WD. Decrepitation model for capacity loss during cycling of alloys in rechargeable electrochemical systems. Ionics, 2000, 6: 57-63

[31] Dingreville R, Qu J. Surface free energy and its effect on the elastic behavior of nano-sized particles, wires and films. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 2005, 53: 1827-1854

[32] Kizuka T, Takatani Y, Asaka K, et al. Measurements of the atomistic mechanics of single crystalline silicon wires of nanometer width. Phys. Rev. B, 2005, 72: 035333

[33] Uchic MD, Dimiduk DM, Florando JN, et al. Sample dimensions influence strength and crystal plasticity. Science, 2004, 305: 986-989

[34] Wang B, Aifantis KE. Probing the effect of surface parameters and particle size in the diffusion-induced stress of electrodes during lithium insertion. Int. J. Mech. Sci., 2022, 215

[35] Huttin M, Kamlah M. Phase-field modeling of stress generation in electrode particles of lithium ion batteries. Appl. Phys. Lett., 2012, 101

[36] He K, Zhang S, Li J, et al. Visualizing non-equilibrium lithiation of spinel oxide via in situ transmission electron microscopy. Nat. Commun., 2016, 7: 11441

[37] Liu XH, Zhong L, Huang S, et al. Size-dependent fracture of silicon nanoparticles during lithiation. ACS Nano, 2012, 6: 1522-1531

[38] Lim JM, Hwang T, Kim D, et al. Intrinsic origins of crack generation in Ni-rich LiNi_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1O₂ layered oxide cathode material. Sci. Rep., 2017, 7: 39669

[39] Mao KX, Yao YM, Chen Y, et al. Fracture mechanisms of NCM polycrystalline particles in lithium-ion batteries: a review. J. Energy Storage, 2024, 84

[40] Hu JT, Li LZ, Hu EY, et al. Mesoscale-architecture-based crack evolution dictating cycling stability of advanced lithium ion batteries. Nano Energy, 2021, 79

[41] Song BH, Sui T, Ying SQ, et al. Nano-structural changes in Li-ion battery cathodes during cycling revealed by FIB-SEM serial sectioning tomography. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2015, 3: 18171-18179

[42] Wu HQ, Qin CD, Wang K, et al. Revealing two distinctive intergranular cracking mechanisms of Ni-rich layered cathode by cross-sectional scanning electron microscopy. J. Power Sources, 2021, 503

[43] Chen WX, Allen JM, Rezaei S, et al. Cohesive phase-field chemo-mechanical simulations of inter- and trans- granular fractures in polycrystalline NMC cathodes via image-based 3D reconstruction. J. Power Sources, 2024, 596

[44] Shishvan SS, Fleck NA, McMeeking RM, et al. Cracking and associated volumetric expansion of NMC811 secondary particles. J. Power Sources, 2023, 588

[45] Bai Y, Zhao KJ, Liu Y, et al. A chemo-mechanical grain boundary model and its application to understand the damage of Li-ion battery materials. Scr. Mater., 2020, 183: 45-49

[46] Singh A, Pal S. Chemo-mechanical modeling of inter- and intra-granular fracture in heterogeneous cathode with polycrystalline particles for lithium-ion battery. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 2022, 163

[47] Dey AN, Sullivan BP. The electrochemical decomposition of propylene carbonate on graphite. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1970, 117: 222

[48] Peled E. The electrochemical behavior of alkali and alkaline earth metals in nonaqueous battery systems: the solid electrolyte interphase model. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1979, 126: 2047-2051

[49] Aurbach D, Markovsky B, Levi MD, et al. New insights into the interactions between electrode materials and electrolyte solutions for advanced nonaqueous batteries. J. Power Sources, 1999, 81(82): 95-111

[50] Wu H, Chan G, Choi JW, et al. Stable cycling of double-walled silicon nanotube battery anodes through solid-electrolyte interphase control. Nat. Nanotechnol., 2012, 7: 310-315

[51] Kumar R, Tokranov A, Sheldon BW, et al. In situ and operando investigations of failure mechanisms of the solid electrolyte interphase on silicon electrodes. ACS Energy Lett., 2016, 1: 689-697

[52] Guo K, Kumar R, Xiao XC, et al. Failure progression in the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on silicon electrodes. Nano Energy, 2020, 68

[53] Bhattacharya S, Riahi AR, Alpas AT. A transmission electron microscopy study of crack formation and propagation in electrochemically cycled graphite electrode in lithium-ion cells. J. Power Sources, 2011, 196: 8719-8727

[54] Santos DA, Rezaei S, Zhang DL, et al. Chemistry-mechanics-geometry coupling in positive electrode materials: a scale-bridging perspective for mitigating degradation in lithium-ion batteries through materials design. Chem. Sci., 2023, 14: 458-484

[55] Bazant MZ. Theory of chemical kinetics and charge transfer based on nonequilibrium thermodynamics. Acc. Chem. Res., 2013, 46: 1144-1160

[56] Larché FC, Cahn JW. Overview no. 41 The interactions of composition and stress in crystalline solids. Acta Metall., 1985, 33: 331-357

[57] Santos DA, Andrews JL, Bai Y, et al. Bending good beats breaking bad: phase separation patterns in individual cathode particles upon lithiation and delithiation. Mater. Horiz., 2020, 7: 3275-3290

[58] Li GY, Zhang ZJ, Huang ZL, et al. Understanding the accumulated cycle capacity fade caused by the secondary particle fracture of LiNi_{1− x−y}Co _xMn _yO₂ cathode for lithium ion batteries. J. Solid State Electrochem., 2017, 21: 673-682

[59] Watanabe S, Kinoshita M, Hosokawa T, et al. Capacity fading of LiAl _yNi_{1– x – y}Co _xO₂ cathode for lithium-ion batteries during accelerated calendar and cycle life tests (effect of depth of discharge in charge-discharge cycling on the suppression of the micro-crack generation of LiAl _yNi_{1– x – y}Co _xO₂ particle). J. Power Sources, 2014, 260: 50-56

[60] Ryu HH, Park KJ, Yoon CS, et al. Capacity fading of Ni-rich Li[Ni_xCo_yMn_1–x–y]O2 (0.6 ≤ x ≤ 0.95) cathodes for high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries: bulk or surface degradation?. Chem. Mater., 2018, 30: 1155-1163

[61] Pender JP, Jha G, Youn DH, et al. Electrode degradation in lithium-ion batteries. ACS Nano, 2020, 14: 1243-1295

[62] Shi Q, Liu WJ, Qu QT, et al. Robust solid/electrolyte interphase on graphite anode to suppress lithium inventory loss in lithium-ion batteries. Carbon, 2017, 111: 291-298

[63] An SJ, Li JL, Daniel C, et al. The state of understanding of the lithium-ion-battery graphite solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) and its relationship to formation cycling. Carbon, 2016, 105: 52-76

[64] Xu R, de Vasconcelos LS, Shi J, et al. Disintegration of meatball electrodes for LiNi _xMn _yCo _zO₂ cathode materials. Exp. Mech., 2018, 58: 549-559

[65] Marin-Montin J, Zurita-Gotor M, Montero-Chacón F. Numerical analysis of degradation and capacity loss in graphite active particles of Li-ion battery anodes. Materials, 2022, 15: 3979

[66] Allen JM, Weddle PJ, Verma A, et al. Quantifying the influence of charge rate and cathode-particle architectures on degradation of Li-ion cells through 3D continuum-level damage models. J. Power Sources, 2021, 512

[67] Li J, Adewuyi K, Lotfi N, et al. A single particle model with chemical/mechanical degradation physics for lithium ion battery state of health (SOH) estimation. Appl. Energy, 2018, 212: 1178-1190

[68] Chen Y, Luan WL, Chen HF, et al. Multi-scale failure behavior of cathode in lithium-ion batteries based on stress field. J. Inorg. Mater., 2022

[69] Li JC, Dozier AK, Li YC, et al. Crack pattern formation in thin film lithium-ion battery electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2011, 158: A689

[70] Yuca N, Zhao H, Song XY, et al. A systematic investigation of polymer binder flexibility on the electrode performance of lithium-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2014, 6: 17111-17118

[71] Xie HM, Kang YL, Song HB, et al. Real-time measurements and experimental analysis of material softening and total stresses of Si-composite electrode. J. Power Sources, 2019, 424: 100-107

[72] Luo HL, Zhu JE, Sahraei E, et al. Adhesion strength of the cathode in lithium-ion batteries under combined tension/shear loadings. RSC Adv., 2018, 8: 3996-4005

[73] Chen Y, Chen HF, Luan WL. Shakedown, ratcheting and fatigue analysis of cathode coating in lithium-ion battery under steady charging-discharging process. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 2021, 150

[74] Nie JJ, Sun SW, Song YC, et al. Impacts of electrode shape on lithiation performance: the edge effect on lithium intercalation. J. Energy Storage, 2022, 47

[75] Yang L, Chen HS, Jiang HQ, et al. Failure mechanisms of 2D silicon film anodes: in situ observations and simulations on crack evolution. Chem. Commun., 2018, 54: 3997-4000

[76] Dai CY, Li CS, Huang HY, et al. In situ strain measurements and stress analysis of SiO@C composite electrodes during electrochemical cycling by using digital image correlation. Solid State Ion., 2019, 331: 56-65

[77] Wang Z, Huang HY, Zeng L, et al. In-operando deformation studies on the mechano-electrochemical mechanism in free-standing MWCNTs/V₂O₅ lithium ion battery electrode. Electrochim. Acta, 2019, 305: 101-115

[78] Zhang C, Xu J, Cao L, et al. Constitutive behavior and progressive mechanical failure of electrodes in lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources, 2017, 357: 126-137

[79] Lai WJ, Ali MY, Pan J. Mechanical behavior of representative volume elements of lithium-ion battery modules under various loading conditions. J. Power Sources, 2014, 248: 789-808

[80] Sethuraman VA, Chon MJ, Shimshak M, et al. In situ measurements of stress evolution in silicon thin films during electrochemical lithiation and delithiation. J. Power Sources, 2010, 195: 5062-5066

[81] Weng L, Zhou JQ, Cai R. Analytical model of Li-ion diffusion-induced stress in nanowire and negative Poisson’s ratio electrode under different operations. Int. J. Mech. Sci., 2018, 141: 245-261

[82] Warner J. The Handbook of Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Design: Chemistry, Components, Types and Terminology, 2015, Amsterdam: Elsevier

[83] Kumar PS, Ayyasamy S, Tok ES, et al. Impact of electrical conductivity on the electrochemical performances of layered structure lithium trivanadate (LiV_3−xM_xO₈, M = Zn/Co/Fe/Sn/Ti/Zr/Nb/Mo, x = 001–01) as cathode materials for energy storage. ACS Omega, 2018, 3: 3036-3044

[84] Zhang SS, Jow TR. Aluminum corrosion in electrolyte of Li-ion battery. J. Power Sources, 2002, 109: 458-464

[85] Li JL, Du ZJ, Ruther RE, et al. Toward low-cost, high-energy density, and high-power density lithium-ion batteries. JOM, 2017, 69: 1484-1496

[86] Zhu JY, Feng JM, Guo ZS. Mechanical properties of commercial copper current-collector foils. RSC Adv., 2014, 4: 57671-57678

[87] Braithwaite JW, Gonzales A, Nagasubramanian G, et al. Corrosion of lithium-ion battery current collectors. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1999, 146: 448

[88] Guo MQ, Meng WJ, Zhang XG, et al. Structural degradation of Cu current collector during electrochemical cycling of Sn-based lithium-ion batteries. J. Electron. Mater., 2019, 48: 7543-7550

[89] Guo R, Lu LG, Ouyang MG, et al. Mechanism of the entire overdischarge process and overdischarge-induced internal short circuit in lithium-ion batteries. Sci. Rep., 2016, 6: 30248

[90] Wu W, Xiao XR, Huang XS, et al. A multiphysics model for the in situ stress analysis of the separator in a lithium-ion battery cell. Comput. Mater. Sci., 2014, 83: 127-136

[91] Shi DH, Xiao XR, Huang XS, et al. Modeling stresses in the separator of a pouch lithium-ion cell. J. Power Sources, 2011, 196: 8129-8139

[92] Chen Z, Hsu PC, Lopez J, et al. Fast and reversible thermoresponsive polymer switching materials for safer batteries. Nat. Energy, 2016, 1: 15009

[93] Kumar J, Kichambare P, Rai AK, et al. A high performance ceramic-polymer separator for lithium batteries. J. Power. Sources, 2016, 301: 194-198

[94] Love CT. Thermomechanical analysis and durability of commercial micro-porous polymer Li-ion battery separators. J. Power Sources, 2011, 196: 2905-2912

[95] Makki M, Ayoub G, Lee CW. Modeling the anisotropic behavior of highly orthotropic lithium-ion batteries polymer separators. Int. J. Solids Struct., 2023, 264

[96] Zhang XW, Sahraei E, Wang K. Deformation and failure characteristics of four types of lithium-ion battery separators. J. Power Sources, 2016, 327: 693-701

[97] Kalnaus S, Wang YL, Li JL, et al. Temperature and strain rate dependent behavior of polymer separator for Li-ion batteries. Extreme Mech. Lett., 2018, 20: 73-80

[98] Zhang X, Zhu J, Sahraei E. Degradation of battery separators under charge–discharge cycles. RSC Adv., 2017, 7: 56099-56107

[99] Gor GY, Cannarella J, Leng CZ, et al. Swelling and softening of lithium-ion battery separators in electrolyte solvents. J. Power Sources, 2015, 294: 167-172

[100] Cannarella J, Liu XY, Leng CZ, et al. Mechanical properties of a battery separator under compression and tension. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2014, 161: F3117-F3122

[101] Yu YS, Xiong BJ, Zeng F, et al. Influences of compression on the mechanical behavior and electrochemical performances of separators for lithium ion batteries. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2018, 57: 17142-17151

[102] Gor GY, Cannarella J, Prévost JH, et al. A model for the behavior of battery separators in compression at different strain/charge rates. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2014, 161: F3065-F3071

[103] Cannarella J, Arnold CB. Ion transport restriction in mechanically strained separator membranes. J. Power Sources, 2013, 226: 149-155

[104] Peabody C, Arnold CB. The role of mechanically induced separator creep in lithium-ion battery capacity fade. J. Power Sources, 2011, 196: 8147-8153

[105] Xu J, Wang LB, Guan J, et al. Coupled effect of strain rate and solvent on dynamic mechanical behaviors of separators in lithium ion batteries. Mater. Des., 2016, 95: 319-328

[106] Yan ST, Deng J, Bae C, et al. In-plane orthotropic property characterization of a polymeric battery separator. Polym. Test., 2018, 72: 46-54

[107] Yan ST, Deng J, Bae C, et al. Orthotropic viscoelastic modeling of polymeric battery separator. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2020, 167

[108] Wang Y, Xing YY, Li QM. A hyper-viscoelastic model for battery separators based on inverse-stress-solution parametrical calibration method. Int. J. Mech. Sci., 2022, 225

[109] Xu J, Zhu LJ, Xiao LS, et al. A multiscale study on the effect of compression on lithium-ion battery separators. J. Energy Storage, 2022, 54

[110] Sun W, Li QM. Understanding the microstructure behaviour of the Li-ion battery separator under compression using 3D image-based modelling. Int. J. Mech. Sci., 2022, 216

[111] Iqbal N, Ali Y, Lee S. Chemo-mechanical response of composite electrode systems with multiple binder connections. Electrochim. Acta, 2020, 364

[112] Müller S, Pietsch P, Brandt BE, et al. Quantification and modeling of mechanical degradation in lithium-ion batteries based on nanoscale imaging. Nat. Commun., 2018, 9: 2340

[113] Xie HM, Han B, Song HB, et al. In-situ measurements of electrochemical stress/strain fields and stress analysis during an electrochemical process. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 2021, 156

[114] Liu M. Finite element analysis of lithiation-induced decohesion of a silicon thin film adhesively bonded to a rigid substrate under potentiostatic operation. Int. J. Solids Struct., 2015, 67(68): 263-271

[115] Goriparti S, Miele E, De Angelis F, et al. Review on recent progress of nanostructured anode materials for Li-ion batteries. J. Power Sources, 2014, 257: 421-443

[116] Pal S, Damle SS, Patel SH, et al. Modeling the delamination of amorphous-silicon thin film anode for lithium-ion battery. J. Power Sources, 2014, 246: 149-159

[117] Haftbaradaran H. Chemo-mechanical modeling of elastic thin-film electrodes on elastic substrates under chemical equilibrium. Int. J. Solids Struct., 2016, 91: 157-168

[118] Lu B, Song YC, Guo ZS, et al. Modeling of progressive delamination in a thin film driven by diffusion-induced stresses. Int. J. Solids Struct., 2013, 50: 2495-2507

[119] Lu B, Zhao YF, Song YC, et al. Analytical model on lithiation-induced interfacial debonding of an active layer from a rigid substrate. J. Appl. Mech., 2016, 83

[120] Sun YK, Yuan YB, Lu LG, et al. A comprehensive research on internal short circuits caused by copper particle contaminants on cathode in lithium-ion batteries. eTransportation, 2022, 13: 100183

[121] Qian GN, Monaco F, Meng DC, et al. The role of structural defects in commercial lithium-ion batteries. Cell Rep. Phys. Sci., 2021, 2

[122] Mohanty D, Hockaday E, Li J, et al. Effect of electrode manufacturing defects on electrochemical performance of lithium-ion batteries: cognizance of the battery failure sources. J. Power Sources, 2016, 312: 70-79

[123] Liu LS, Feng XN, Zhang MX, et al. Comparative study on substitute triggering approaches for internal short circuit in lithium-ion batteries. Appl. Energy, 2020, 259

[124] Xu J, Liu BH, Hu DY. State of charge dependent mechanical integrity behavior of 18650 lithium-ion batteries. Sci. Rep., 2016, 6: 21829

[125] Xia X, Tang L. A fast-validated computational model for cylindrical lithium-ion batteries under multidirectional mechanical loading. Int. J. Energy Res., 2021, 45: 4410-4428

[126] Qi Y, Guo HB, Hector LG, et al. Threefold increase in the Young’s modulus of graphite negative electrode during lithium intercalation. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2010, 157: A558

[127] Yang S, Wu JX, Yan BG, et al. Nanoscale characterization of charged/discharged lithium-rich thin film cathode by scanning probe microscopy techniques. J. Power Sources, 2017, 352: 9-17

[128] Cannarella J, Arnold CB. Stress evolution and capacity fade in constrained lithium-ion pouch cells. J. Power Sources, 2014, 245: 745-751

[129] Li W, Xia Y, Zhu JE, et al. State-of-charge dependence of mechanical response of lithium-ion batteries: a result of internal stress. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2018, 165: A1537-A1546

[130] Luo HL, Xia Y, Zhou Q. Mechanical damage in a lithium-ion pouch cell under indentation loads. J. Power Sources, 2017, 357: 61-70

[131] Cannarella J, Arnold CB. State of health and charge measurements in lithium-ion batteries using mechanical stress. J. Power Sources, 2014, 269: 7-14

[132] Hooper JM, Marco J. Characterising the in-vehicle vibration inputs to the high voltage battery of an electric vehicle. J. Power Sources, 2014, 245: 510-519

[133] Bao M, Chen EW, Lu YM, et al. Vibration and noise analysis for a motor of pure electric vehicle. Adv. Mater. Res., 2014, 915(916): 98-102

[134] Cantisani G, Loprencipe G. Road roughness and whole body vibration: evaluation tools and comfort limits. J. Transp. Eng., 2010, 136: 818-826

[135] Shui L, Chen FY, Garg A, et al. Design optimization of battery pack enclosure for electric vehicle. Struct. Multidiscip. Optim., 2018, 58: 331-347

[136] Choi Y, Jung D, Ham K, et al. A study on the accelerated vibration endurance tests for battery fixing bracket in electrically driven vehicles. Proc. Eng., 2011, 10: 851-856

[137] Lang JF, Kjell G. Comparing vibration measurements in an electric vehicle with standard vibration requirements for Li-ion batteries using power spectral density analysis. Int. J. Electr. Hybrid Veh., 2015, 7: 272

[138] Suttman, A.K.: Lithium ion battery aging experiments and algorithm development for life estimation. Dissertation, The Ohio State University (2011)

[139] Brand MJ, Schuster SF, Bach T, et al. Effects of vibrations and shocks on lithium-ion cells. J. Power Sources, 2015, 288: 62-69

[140] Hooper J, Marco J, Chouchelamane G, et al. Vibration durability testing of nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) lithium-ion 18650 battery cells. Energies, 2016, 9: 52

[141] Hooper JM, Marco J, Chouchelamane GH, et al. Multi-axis vibration durability testing of lithium ion 18650 NCA cylindrical cells. J. Energy Storage, 2018, 15: 103-123

[142] Somerville L, Hooper J, Marco J, et al. Impact of vibration on the surface film of lithium-ion cells. Energies, 2017, 10: 741

[143] Li L, Chen XP, Hu RF, et al. Aging mechanisms and thermal characteristics of commercial 18650 lithium-ion battery induced by minor mechanical deformation. J. Electrochem. Energy Convers. Storage, 2021, 18

[144] Spielbauer M, Soellner J, Berg P, et al. Experimental investigation of the impact of mechanical deformation on aging, safety and electrical behavior of 18650 lithium-ion battery cells. J. Energy Storage, 2022, 55

[145] Li L, Chen XP, Yuan Q, et al. Effects of minor mechanical deformation on the lifetime and performance of commercial 21700 lithium-ion battery. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2022, 169

[146] Zhu XQ, Wang H, Allu S, et al. Investigation on capacity loss mechanisms of lithium-ion pouch cells under mechanical indentation conditions. J. Power Sources, 2020, 465

[147] Kim JY, Kim JY, Kim YJ, et al. Influence of mechanical fatigue at different states of charge on pouch-type Li-ion batteries. Materials, 2022, 15: 5557

[148] Wang FM, Yu MH, Hsiao YJ, et al. Aging effects to solid electrolyte interface (SEI) membrane formation and the performance analysis of lithium ion batteries. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 2011, 6: 1014-1026

[149] Liu DR, Wang Y, Xie YS, et al. On the stress characteristics of graphite anode in commercial pouch lithium-ion battery. J. Power Sources, 2013, 232: 29-33

[150] Laresgoiti I, Käbitz S, Ecker M, et al. Modeling mechanical degradation in lithium ion batteries during cycling: solid electrolyte interphase fracture. J. Power Sources, 2015, 300: 112-122

[151] Spingler FB, Friedrich S, Jossen A. The effects of non-uniform mechanical compression of lithium-ion cells on local current densities and lithium plating. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2021, 168

[152] Chen YY, Santhanagopalan S, Babu V, et al. Dynamic mechanical behavior of lithium-ion pouch cells subjected to high-velocity impact. Compos. Struct., 2019, 218: 50-59

[153] Sahraei E, Campbell J, Wierzbicki T. Modeling and short circuit detection of 18650 Li-ion cells under mechanical abuse conditions. J. Power Sources, 2012, 220: 360-372

[154] Sahraei E, Hill R, Wierzbicki T. Calibration and finite element simulation of pouch lithium-ion batteries for mechanical integrity. J. Power Sources, 2012, 201: 307-321

[155] Sahraei E, Meier J, Wierzbicki T. Characterizing and modeling mechanical properties and onset of short circuit for three types of lithium-ion pouch cells. J. Power Sources, 2014, 247: 503-516

[156] Sahraei E, Bosco E, Dixon B, et al. Microscale failure mechanisms leading to internal short circuit in Li-ion batteries under complex loading scenarios. J. Power Sources, 2016, 319: 56-65

[157] Wierzbicki T, Sahraei E. Homogenized mechanical properties for the jellyroll of cylindrical lithium-ion cells. J. Power Sources, 2013, 241: 467-476

[158] Sahraei E, Kahn M, Meier J, et al. Modelling of cracks developed in lithium-ion cells under mechanical loading. RSC Adv., 2015, 5: 80369-80380

[159] Xu J, Liu BH, Wang XY, et al. Computational model of 18650 lithium-ion battery with coupled strain rate and SOC dependencies. Appl. Energy, 2016, 172: 180-189

[160] Wang, L.B., Liu, B.H., Xu, J.: A finite element model of 18650 lithium-ion battery for explosion caused by internal short circuit. In: ASME 2016 35th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, Busan, 19–24 June, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1115/OMAE2016-54211

[161] Lai WJ, Ali MY, Pan J. Mechanical behavior of representative volume elements of lithium-ion battery cells under compressive loading conditions. J. Power Sources, 2014, 245: 609-623

[162] Zhu JE, Zhang XW, Sahraei E, et al. Deformation and failure mechanisms of 18650 battery cells under axial compression. J. Power Sources, 2016, 336: 332-340

[163] Pan ZX, Li W, Xia Y. Experiments and 3D detailed modeling for a pouch battery cell under impact loading. J. Energy Storage, 2020, 27

[164] Jia YK, Liu BH, Hong ZG, et al. Safety issues of defective lithium-ion batteries: identification and risk evaluation. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2020, 8: 12472-12484

[165] Deng J, Bae C, Marcicki J, et al. Safety modelling and testing of lithium-ion batteries in electrified vehicles. Nat. Energy, 2018, 3: 261-266

[166] Liu BH, Zhao H, Yu HL, et al. Multiphysics computational framework for cylindrical lithium-ion batteries under mechanical abusive loading. Electrochim. Acta, 2017, 256: 172-184

[167] Yu GZ, Zheng YT, Feng B, et al. Computation modeling of laminated crack glass windshields subjected to headform impact. Comput. Struct., 2017, 193: 139-154

[168] Liu BH, Yin S, Xu J. Integrated computation model of lithium-ion battery subject to nail penetration. Appl. Energy, 2016, 183: 278-289

[169] Wang H, Simunovic S, Maleki H, et al. Internal configuration of prismatic lithium-ion cells at the onset of mechanically induced short circuit. J. Power Sources, 2016, 306: 424-430

[170] Zhu XQ, Wang H, Wang X, et al. Internal short circuit and failure mechanisms of lithium-ion pouch cells under mechanical indentation abuse conditions: an experimental study. J. Power Sources, 2020, 455

[171] Ali MY, Lai WJ, Pan J. Computational models for simulations of lithium-ion battery cells under constrained compression tests. J. Power Sources, 2013, 242: 325-340

[172] Liu BH, Jia YK, Li J, et al. Safety issues caused by internal short circuits in lithium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2018, 6: 21475-21484

[173] Li W, Xia Y, Chen GH, et al. Comparative study of mechanical-electrical-thermal responses of pouch, cylindrical, and prismatic lithium-ion cells under mechanical abuse. Sci. China Technol. Sci., 2018, 61: 1472-1482

[174] Zhu JE, Wierzbicki T, Li W. A review of safety-focused mechanical modeling of commercial lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources, 2018, 378: 153-168

[175] Liu YJ, Xia Y, Xing BB, et al. Mechanical-electrical-thermal responses of lithium-ion pouch cells under dynamic loading: a comparative study between fresh cells and aged ones. Int. J. Impact Eng, 2022, 166

[176] Wang H, Kumar A, Simunovic S, et al. Progressive mechanical indentation of large-format Li-ion cells. J. Power Sources, 2017, 341: 156-164

[177] Abaza A, Ferrari S, Wong HK, et al. Experimental study of internal and external short circuits of commercial automotive pouch lithium-ion cells. J. Energy Storage, 2018, 16: 211-217

[178] Spotnitz R, Franklin J. Abuse behavior of high-power, lithium-ion cells. J. Power Sources, 2003, 113: 81-100

[179] Zhang C, Santhanagopalan S, Sprague MA, et al. Coupled mechanical-electrical-thermal modeling for short-circuit prediction in a lithium-ion cell under mechanical abuse. J. Power Sources, 2015, 290: 102-113

[180] Yokoshima T, Mukoyama D, Maeda F, et al. Direct observation of internal state of thermal runaway in lithium ion battery during nail-penetration test. J. Power Sources, 2018, 393: 67-74

[181] Finegan DP, Tjaden B, Heenan TMM, et al. Tracking internal temperature and structural dynamics during nail penetration of lithium-ion cells. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2017, 164: A3285-A3291

[182] Greve L, Fehrenbach C. Mechanical testing and macro-mechanical finite element simulation of the deformation, fracture, and short circuit initiation of cylindrical Lithium ion battery cells. J. Power Sources, 2012, 214: 377-385

[183] Li HG, Zhou D, Zhang MH, et al. Multi-field interpretation of internal short circuit and thermal runaway behavior for lithium-ion batteries under mechanical abuse. Energy, 2023, 263

[184] Li HG, Liu BH, Zhou D, et al. Coupled mechanical-electrochemical-thermal study on the short-circuit mechanism of lithium-ion batteries under mechanical abuse. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2020, 167

[185] Liang HZ, Zhang XY, Yang L, et al. Electrochemomechanical coupled behaviors of deformation and failure in electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Sci. China Technol. Sci., 2019, 62: 1277-1296

[186] Lee SW, Lee HW, Ryu I, et al. Kinetics and fracture resistance of lithiated silicon nanostructure pairs controlled by their mechanical interaction. Nat. Commun., 2015, 6: 7533

[187] Xu R, Zhao KJ. Mechanical interactions regulated kinetics and morphology of composite electrodes in Li-ion batteries. Extreme Mech. Lett., 2016, 8: 13-21

[188] Xu R, de Vasconcelos LS, Zhao KJ. Computational analysis of chemomechanical behaviors of composite electrodes in Li-ion batteries. J. Mater. Res., 2016, 31: 2715-2727

[189] Ali Y, Iqbal N, Lee S. Inhomogeneous stress development at the multiparticle electrode of lithium-ion batteries. Int. J. Energy Res., 2021, 45: 14788-14803

[190] Zhu XC, Chen HF, Luan WL. On the study of cyclic plasticity behaviour of primary electrode particle for lithium-ion battery. Eur. J. Mech. A, 2021, 86

[191] Kodama M, Komiyama S, Ohashi A, et al. High-pressure in situ X-ray computed tomography and numerical simulation of sulfide solid electrolyte. J. Power Sources, 2020, 462

[192] Kodama M, Ohashi A, Hirai S. In situ X-ray computational tomography measurement of single particle behavior of sulfide solid electrolyte under high-pressure compression. J. Power Sources Adv., 2020, 4

[193] Ebner M, Geldmacher F, Marone F, et al. X-ray tomography of porous, transition metal oxide based lithium ion battery electrodes. Adv. Energy Mater., 2013, 3: 845-850

[194] Striebel KA, Sierra A, Shim J, et al. The effect of compression on natural graphite anode performance and matrix conductivity. J. Power Sources, 2004, 134: 241-251

[195] Wang CW, Yi YB, Sastry AM, et al. Particle compression and conductivity in Li-ion anodes with graphite additives. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2004, 151: A1489

[196] Bülter H, Peters F, Schwenzel J, et al. In situ quantification of the swelling of graphite composite electrodes by scanning electrochemical microscopy. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2015, 163: A27-A34

[197] Park YS, Oh ES, Lee SM. Effect of polymeric binder type on the thermal stability and tolerance to roll-pressing of spherical natural graphite anodes for Li-ion batteries. J. Power Sources, 2014, 248: 1191-1196

[198] Kang HX, Lim C, Li TY, et al. Geometric and electrochemical characteristics of LiNi_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3O₂ electrode with different calendering conditions. Electrochim. Acta, 2017, 232: 431-438

[199] Meyer C, Bockholt H, Haselrieder W, et al. Characterization of the calendering process for compaction of electrodes for lithium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Process. Technol., 2017, 249: 172-178

[200] Bockholt H, Indrikova M, Netz A, et al. The interaction of consecutive process steps in the manufacturing of lithium-ion battery electrodes with regard to structural and electrochemical properties. J. Power Sources, 2016, 325: 140-151

[201] Ngandjong AC, Lombardo T, Primo EN, et al. Investigating electrode calendering and its impact on electrochemical performance by means of a new discrete element method model: towards a digital twin of Li-Ion battery manufacturing. J. Power Sources, 2021, 485

[202] Gnanaraj JS, Cohen YS, Levi MD, et al. The effect of pressure on the electroanalytical response of graphite anodes and LiCoO₂ cathodes for Li-ion batteries. J. Electroanal. Chem., 2001, 516: 89-102

[203] Xu C, Ahmad Z, Aryanfar A, et al. Enhanced strength and temperature dependence of mechanical properties of Li at small scales and its implications for Li metal anodes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 2017, 114: 57-61

[204] Ding SC, Fairgrieve-Park L, Sendetskyi O, et al. Compressive creep deformation of lithium foil at varied cell conditions. J. Power Sources, 2021, 488

[205] Zhao Y, Patel Y, Hunt IA, et al. Preventing lithium ion battery failure during high temperatures by externally applied compression. J. Energy Storage, 2017, 13: 296-303

[206] Sauter C, Zahn R, Wood V. Understanding electrolyte infilling of lithium ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2020, 167

[207] Matadi BP, Geniès S, Delaille A, et al. Effects of biphenyl polymerization on lithium deposition in commercial graphite/NMC lithium-ion pouch-cells during calendar aging at high temperature. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2017, 164: A1089-A1097

[208] Storch M, Hahn SL, Stadler J, et al. Post-mortem analysis of calendar aged large-format lithium-ion cells: investigation of the solid electrolyte interphase. J. Power Sources, 2019, 443

[209] Aiken CP, Xia J, Wang DY, et al. An apparatus for the study of in situ gas evolution in Li-ion pouch cells. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2014, 161: A1548-A1554

[210] Li RH, Ren DS, Wang S, et al. Non-destructive local degradation detection in large format lithium-ion battery cells using reversible strain heterogeneity. J. Energy Storage, 2021, 40

[211] Schilcher C, Meyer C, Kwade A. Structural and electrochemical properties of calendered lithium manganese oxide cathodes. Energy Technol., 2016, 4: 1604-1610

[212] Cheng XB, Zhang R, Zhao CZ, et al. A review of solid electrolyte interphases on lithium metal anode. Adv. Sci., 2016, 3: 1500213

[213] Zhao Q, Tu ZY, Wei SY, et al. Building organic/inorganic hybrid interphases for fast interfacial transport in rechargeable metal batteries. Angew. Chem., 2018, 130: 1004-1008

[214] Hao F, Verma A, Mukherjee PP. Electrodeposition stability of metal electrodes. Energy Storage Mater., 2019, 20: 1-6

[215] Chen XR, Zhao BC, Yan C, et al. Review on Li deposition in working batteries: from nucleation to early growth. Adv. Mater., 2021, 33: 2004128

[216] Lin DC, Liu YY, Cui Y. Reviving the lithium metal anode for high-energy batteries. Nat. Nanotechnol., 2017, 12: 194-206

[217] Wei SY, Choudhury S, Tu ZY, et al. Electrochemical interphases for high-energy storage using reactive metal anodes. Acc. Chem. Res., 2018, 51: 80-88

[218] Ding JF, Xu R, Yan C, et al. A review on the failure and regulation of solid electrolyte interphase in lithium batteries. J. Energy Chem., 2021, 59: 306-319

[219] Hao F, Verma A, Mukherjee PP. Mechanistic insight into dendrite-SEI interactions for lithium metal electrodes. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2018, 6: 19664-19671

[220] Cheng XB, Zhang R, Zhao CZ, et al. Toward safe lithium metal anode in rechargeable batteries: a review. Chem. Rev., 2017, 117: 10403-10473

[221] Chen XR, Yao YX, Yan C, et al. A diffusion-reaction competition mechanism to tailor lithium deposition for lithium-metal batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 2020, 59: 7743-7747

[222] Bai P, Li J, Brushett FR, et al. Transition of lithium growth mechanisms in liquid electrolytes. Energy Environ. Sci., 2016, 9: 3221-3229

[223] Bai P, Guo JZ, Wang M, et al. Interactions between lithium growths and nanoporous ceramic separators. Joule, 2018, 2: 2434-2449

[224] Cipolla A, Barchasz C, Mathieu B, et al. Effect of electrochemical and mechanical properties of SEI on dendritic growth during lithium deposition on lithium metal electrode. J. Power Sources, 2022, 545

[225] Thirumalraj B, Hagos TT, Huang CJ, et al. Nucleation and growth mechanism of lithium metal electroplating. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2019, 141: 18612-18623

[226] Ferrese A, Newman J. Mechanical deformation of a lithium-metal anode due to a very stiff separator. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2014, 161: A1350-A1359

[227] Barai P, Higa K, Srinivasan V. Impact of external pressure and electrolyte transport properties on lithium dendrite growth. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2018, 165: A2654-A2666

[228] Shen X, Zhang R, Shi P, et al. How does external pressure shape Li dendrites in Li metal batteries?. Adv. Energy Mater., 2021, 11: 2003416

[229] Harry KJ, Higa K, Srinivasan V, et al. Influence of electrolyte modulus on the local current density at a dendrite tip on a lithium metal electrode. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2016, 163: A2216-A2224

[230] Zhang X, Wang QJ, Harrison KL, et al. Rethinking how external pressure can suppress dendrites in lithium metal batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2019, 166: A3639-A3652

[231] Louli AJ, Genovese M, Weber R, et al. Exploring the impact of mechanical pressure on the performance of anode-free lithium metal cells. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2019, 166: A1291-A1299

[232] Wilkinson DP, Blom H, Brandt K, et al. Effects of physical constraints on Li cyclability. J. Power Sources, 1991, 36: 517-527

[233] Zhang CF, Liu YY, Jiao XX, et al. In situ volume change studies of lithium metal electrode under different pressure. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2019, 166: A3675-A3678

[234] Hirai T, Yoshimatsu I, Yamaki JI. Influence of electrolyte on lithium cycling efficiency with pressurized electrode stack. J. Electrochem. Soc., 1994, 141: 611-614

[235] Gireaud L, Grugeon S, Laruelle S, et al. Lithium metal stripping/plating mechanisms studies: a metallurgical approach. Electrochem. Commun., 2006, 8: 1639-1649

[236] Harrison KL, Zavadil KR, Hahn NT, et al. Lithium self-discharge and its prevention: direct visualization through in situ electrochemical scanning transmission electron microscopy. ACS Nano, 2017, 11: 11194-11205

[237] Wilkinson DP, Wainwright D. In-situ study of electrode stack growth in rechargeable cells at constant pressure. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1993, 355: 193-203

[238] Piper DM, Yersak TA, Lee SH. Effect of compressive stress on electrochemical performance of silicon anodes. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2012, 160: A77-A81

[239] Gupta A, Kazyak E, Craig N, et al. Evaluating the effects of temperature and pressure on Li/PEO-LiTFSI interfacial stability and kinetics. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2018, 165: A2801-A2806

[240] Du WB, Xue NS, Shyy W, et al. A surrogate-based multi-scale model for mass transport and electrochemical kinetics in lithium-ion battery electrodes. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2014, 161: E3086-E3096

[241] Wu W, Xiao XR, Wang M, et al. A microstructural resolved model for the stress analysis of lithium-ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2014, 161: A803-A813

[242] Mai WJ, Colclasure A, Smith K. A reformulation of the pseudo 2D battery model coupling large electrochemical-mechanical deformations at particle and electrode levels. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2019, 166: A1330-A1339

[243] Grazioli D, Magri M, Salvadori A. Computational modeling of Li-ion batteries. Comput. Mech., 2016, 58: 889-909

[244] Awarke A, Lauer S, Wittler M, et al. Quantifying the effects of strains on the conductivity and porosity of LiFePO₄ based Li-ion composite cathodes using a multi-scale approach. Comput. Mater. Sci., 2011, 50: 871-879

[245] Liu BH, Jia YK, Li JN, et al. Multiphysics coupled computational model for commercialized Si/graphite composite anode. J. Power Sources, 2020, 450

[246] Wu B, Lu W. A battery model that fully couples mechanics and electrochemistry at both particle and electrode levels by incorporation of particle interaction. J. Power Sources, 2017, 360: 360-372

[247] Wu B, Lu W. A consistently coupled multiscale mechanical-electrochemical battery model with particle interaction and its validation. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 2019, 125: 89-111

[248] Lee SM, Sastry AM, Park J. Study on microstructures of electrodes in lithium-ion batteries using variational multi-scale enrichment. J. Power Sources, 2016, 315: 96-110

[249] Lee YK, Park J, Shin H. Multi-scale analysis of cathode microstructural effects on electrochemical and stress responses of lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources, 2022, 548

[250] Wiedemann AH, Goldin GM, Barnett SA, et al. Effects of three-dimensional cathode microstructure on the performance of lithium-ion battery cathodes. Electrochim. Acta, 2013, 88: 580-588

[251] Lu XK, Bertei A, Finegan DP, et al. 3D microstructure design of lithium-ion battery electrodes assisted by X-ray nano-computed tomography and modelling. Nat. Commun., 2020, 11: 2079

[252] Yang SC, Cheng HC, Wang MY, et al. Multi-scale battery modeling method for fault diagnosis. Automot. Innov., 2022, 5: 400-414

[253] Kashkooli AG, Farhad S, Lee DU, et al. Multiscale modeling of lithium-ion battery electrodes based on nano-scale X-ray computed tomography. J. Power Sources, 2016, 307: 496-509

[254] Wenzler N, Rief S, Linden S, et al. 3D electrochemical-mechanical battery simulation tool: implementation with full cell simulations and verification with operando X-ray tomography. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2023, 170

[255] Mendoza H, Roberts SA, Brunini VE, et al. Mechanical and electrochemical response of a LiCoO₂ cathode using reconstructed microstructures. Electrochim. Acta, 2016, 190: 1-15

[256] Gupta P, Gudmundson P. A multi-scale model for simulation of electrochemically induced stresses on scales of active particles, electrode layers, and battery level in lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources, 2021, 511

[257] Lee YK, Song J, Park J. Multi-scale coupled mechanical-electrochemical modeling for study on stress generation and its impact on multi-layered electrodes in lithium-ion batteries. Electrochim. Acta, 2021, 389

[258] Clerici D, Mocera F, Somà A. Electrochemical-mechanical multi-scale model and validation with thickness change measurements in prismatic lithium-ion batteries. J. Power Sources, 2022, 542

[259] Mussa AS, Lindbergh G, Klett M, et al. Inhomogeneous active layer contact loss in a cycled prismatic lithium-ion cell caused by the jelly-roll curvature. J. Energy Storage, 2018, 20: 213-217

[260] Kong LC, Li Y, Feng W. Strategies to solve lithium battery thermal runaway: from mechanism to modification. Electrochem. Energy Rev., 2021, 4: 633-679

[261] Xu B, Lee J, Kwon D, et al. Mitigation strategies for Li-ion battery thermal runaway: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2021, 150

[262] Zhang GX, Wei XZ, Tang X, et al. Internal short circuit mechanisms, experimental approaches and detection methods of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles: a review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2021, 141

[263] Qiu YS, Jiang FM. A review on passive and active strategies of enhancing the safety of lithium-ion batteries. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 2022, 184

[264] Feng XN, Ouyang MG, Liu X, et al. Thermal runaway mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: a review. Energy Storage Mater., 2018, 10: 246-267

[265] Wang LB, Yin S, Xu J. A detailed computational model for cylindrical lithium-ion batteries under mechanical loading: from cell deformation to short-circuit onset. J. Power Sources, 2019, 413: 284-292

[266] Wang Y, Feng XN, Huang WS, et al. Challenges and opportunities to mitigate the catastrophic thermal runaway of high-energy batteries. Adv. Energy Mater., 2023, 13: 2203841

[267] Wu SM, Wang C, Luan WL, et al. Thermal runaway behaviors of Li-ion batteries after low temperature aging: experimental study and predictive modeling. J. Energy Storage, 2023, 66

[268] Ye, J.N.: Thermal runaway and failure mechanism of lithium Ion batteries during overcharge and over-discharge. Dissertation, City University of Hong Kong (2017)

[269] Zhang LL, Ma YL, Cheng XQ, et al. Capacity fading mechanism during long-term cycling of over-discharged LiCoO₂/mesocarbon microbeads battery. J. Power Sources, 2015, 293: 1006-1015

[270] Guo ZS, Zhu JY, Feng JM, et al. Direct in situ observation and explanation of lithium dendrite of commercial graphite electrodes. RSC Adv., 2015, 5: 69514-69521

[271] Kong LX, Xing YJ, Pecht MG. In-situ observations of lithium dendrite growth. IEEE Access, 2018, 6: 8387-8393

[272] Wu, A., Tabaddor, M., Wang, C., et al.: Simulation of internal short circuits in lithium ion cells. In: 2013 IEEE Transportation Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), Detroit, 16–19 June 2013. https://doi.org/10.1109/ITEC.2013.6574505

[273] Zhu YY, Xie J, Pei A, et al. Fast lithium growth and short circuit induced by localized-temperature hotspots in lithium batteries. Nat. Commun., 2019, 10: 2067

[274] Rosso M, Brissot C, Teyssot A, et al. Dendrite short-circuit and fuse effect on Li/polymer/Li cells. Electrochim. Acta, 2006, 51: 5334-5340

[275] Santhanagopalan S, Ramadass P, Zhang JZ. Analysis of internal short-circuit in a lithium ion cell. J. Power Sources, 2009, 194: 550-557

[276] Hogrefe C, Waldmann T, Hölzle M, et al. Direct observation of internal short circuits by lithium dendrites in cross-sectional lithium-ion in situ full cells. J. Power Sources, 2023, 556

[277] Deng JH, Yang XQ, Zhang GQ. Simulation study on internal short circuit of lithium ion battery caused by lithium dendrite. Mater. Today Commun., 2022, 31

[278] Kong XD, Lu LG, Yuan YB, et al. Foreign matter defect battery and sudden spontaneous combustion. eTransportation, 2022, 12: 100170

[279] de Vasconcelos LS, Xu R, Zhao KJ. Operando nanoindentation: a new platform to measure the mechanical properties of electrodes during electrochemical reactions. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2017, 164: A3840-A3847

[280] Cammarata RC. Generalized thermodynamics of surfaces with applications to small solid systems. Solid State Phys., 2009, 61: 1-75

[281] Ryu JH, Kim JW, Sung YE, et al. Failure modes of silicon powder negative electrode in lithium secondary batteries. Electrochem. Solid-State Lett., 2004, 7: A306

[282] Wang CS, John Appleby A, Little FE. Electrochemical study on nano-Sn, Li_4.4Sn and AlSi_0.1 powders used as secondary lithium battery anodes. J. Power Sources, 2001, 93: 174-185

[283] Li YZ, Yan K, Lee HW, et al. Growth of conformal graphene cages on micrometre-sized silicon particles as stable battery anodes. Nat. Energy, 2016, 1: 15029

[284] Jin Y, Li S, Kushima A, et al. Self-healing SEI enables full-cell cycling of a silicon-majority anode with a coulombic efficiency exceeding 99.9%. Energy Environ. Sci., 2017, 10: 580-592

[285] Wang AX, Tang S, Kong DB, et al. Bending-tolerant anodes for lithium-metal batteries. Adv. Mater., 2018, 30: 1703891

[286] Larche FC, Cahn JW. The interactions of composition and stress in crystalline solids. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand., 1984, 89: 467

[287] Balluffi, R.W., Allen, S.M., Carter, W.C.: The diffusion equation. In: Kinetics of Materials, pp. 77–97. Wiley, New York (2005). https://doi.org/10.1002/0471749311

[288] Ding B, Wu H, Xu ZP, et al. Stress effects on lithiation in silicon. Nano Energy, 2017, 38: 486-493

[289] Pan J, Zhang QL, Li JC, et al. Effects of stress on lithium transport in amorphous silicon electrodes for lithium-ion batteries. Nano Energy, 2015, 13: 192-199

[290] Butler JAV. Studies in heterogeneous equilibria. Part III. A kinetic theory of reversible oxidation potentials at inert electrodes. Trans. Faraday Soc., 1924, 19: 734

[291] Bower AF, Guduru PR, Sethuraman VA. A finite strain model of stress, diffusion, plastic flow, and electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion half-cell. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 2011, 59: 804-828

[292] Zhang XX, Gupta T, Wang ZL, et al. A treatment of particle-electrolyte sharp interface fracture in solid-state batteries with multi-field discontinuities. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 2024, 182

[293] Sheikh M, Elmarakbi A, Elkady M. Thermal runaway detection of cylindrical 18650 lithium-ion battery under quasi-static loading conditions. J. Power Sources, 2017, 370: 61-70

[294] Zhu JE, Li W, Wierzbicki T, et al. Deformation and failure of lithium-ion batteries treated as a discrete layered structure. Int. J. Plast., 2019, 121: 293-311

[295] Zhu JE, Koch MM, Lian JH, et al. Mechanical deformation of lithium-ion pouch cells under in-plane loads. Part I. Experimental investigation. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2020, 167: 090533

[296] Lian JH, Koch M, Li W, et al. Mechanical deformation of lithium-ion pouch cells under in-plane loads. Part II. Computational modeling. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2020, 167: 090556

[297] Lian JH, Wierzbicki T, Zhu JE, et al. Prediction of shear crack formation of lithium-ion batteries under rod indentation: comparison of seven failure criteria. Eng. Fract. Mech., 2019, 217

[298] Bonatti C, Mohr D. Anisotropic viscoplasticity and fracture of fine grained metallic aluminum foil used in Li-ion batteries. Mater. Sci. Eng. A, 2016, 654: 329-343

[299] Zhu JE, Li W, Xia Y, et al. Testing and modeling the mechanical properties of the granular materials of graphite anode. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2018, 165: A1160-A1168

[300] Khosrownejad SM, Curtin WA. Crack growth and fracture toughness of amorphous Li-Si anodes: mechanisms and role of charging/discharging studied by atomistic simulations. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 2017, 107: 542-559

[301] Zhao Q, Stalin S, Zhao CZ, et al. Designing solid-state electrolytes for safe, energy-dense batteries. Nat. Rev. Mater., 2020, 5: 229-252

[302] Tang YF, Zhang LQ, Chen JZ, et al. Electro-chemo-mechanics of lithium in solid state lithium metal batteries. Energy Environ. Sci., 2021, 14: 602-642

[303] Lewis JA, Tippens J, Cortes FJQ, et al. Chemo-mechanical challenges in solid-state batteries. Trends Chem., 2019, 1: 845-857

[304] Wang DW, Zhu CB, Fu YP, et al. Interfaces in garnet-based all-solid-state lithium batteries. Adv. Energy Mater., 2020, 10: 2001318

[305] Sun F, Gao R, Zhou D, et al. Revealing hidden facts of Li anode in cycled lithium-oxygen batteries through X-ray and neutron tomography. ACS Energy Lett., 2019, 4: 306-316

[306] Bucci G, Swamy T, Chiang YM, et al. Modeling of internal mechanical failure of all-solid-state batteries during electrochemical cycling, and implications for battery design. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2017, 5: 19422-19430

[307] Kasemchainan J, Zekoll S, Spencer Jolly D, et al. Critical stripping current leads to dendrite formation on plating in lithium anode solid electrolyte cells. Nat. Mater., 2019, 18: 1105-1111

[308] Wang DW, Sun Q, Luo J, et al. Mitigating the interfacial degradation in cathodes for high-performance oxide-based solid-state lithium batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 2019, 11: 4954-4961

[309] Cheng EJ, Sharafi A, Sakamoto J. Intergranular Li metal propagation through polycrystalline Li_6.25Al_0.25La₃Zr₂O₁₂ ceramic electrolyte. Electrochim. Acta, 2017, 223: 85-91

[310] Kerman K, Luntz A, Viswanathan V, et al. Practical challenges hindering the development of solid state Li ion batteries. J. Electrochem. Soc., 2017, 164: A1731-A1744

[311] Liu N, Wu H, McDowell MT, et al. A yolk-shell design for stabilized and scalable Li-ion battery alloy anodes. Nano Lett., 2012, 12: 3315-3321

[312] Mao YW, Wang XL, Xia SH, et al. High-voltage charging-induced strain, heterogeneity, and micro-cracks in secondary particles of a nickel-rich layered cathode material. Adv. Funct. Mater., 2019, 29: 1900247

[313] Kalnaus S, Livingston K, Hawley WB, et al. Design and processing for high performance Li ion battery electrodes with double-layer structure. J. Energy Storage, 2021, 44

[314] Xu K, Zhao N, Li YD, et al. Design and 3D printing of interdigitated electrode structures for high-performance full lithium-ion battery. Chin. J. Mech. Eng. Addit. Manuf. Front., 2022, 1

[315] Luo LS, Liu YC, Liao ZM, et al. Optimal structure design and heat transfer characteristic analysis of X-type air-cooled battery thermal management system. J. Energy Storage, 2023, 67

[316] Liu FF, Chen YY, Qin W, et al. Optimal design of liquid cooling structure with bionic leaf vein branch channel for power battery. Appl. Therm. Eng., 2023, 218

[317] Naseri F, Karimi S, Farjah E, et al. Supercapacitor management system: a comprehensive review of modeling, estimation, balancing, and protection techniques. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2022, 155

[318] Naseri F, Gil S, Barbu C, et al. Digital twin of electric vehicle battery systems: comprehensive review of the use cases, requirements, and platforms. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., 2023, 179

[319] Li WH, Rentemeister M, Badeda J, et al. Digital twin for battery systems: cloud battery management system with online state-of-charge and state-of-health estimation. J. Energy Storage, 2020, 30

[320] Tang H, Wu YC, Cai YF, et al. Design of power lithium battery management system based on digital twin. J. Energy Storage, 2022, 47

[321] Qu X, Song Y, Liu D, et al. Lithium-ion battery performance degradation evaluation in dynamic operating conditions based on a digital twin model. Microelectron. Reliab., 2020, 114

[322] Weragoda DM, Tian GH, Burkitbayev A, et al. A comprehensive review on heat pipe based battery thermal management systems. Appl. Therm. Eng., 2023, 224

[323] Xu JH, Ngandjong AC, Liu CY, et al. Lithium ion battery electrode manufacturing model accounting for 3D realistic shapes of active material particles. J. Power Sources, 2023, 554

[324] Husseini K, Schmidgruber N, Weinmann HW, et al. Development of a digital twin for improved ramp-up processes in the context of Li-ion-battery-cell-stack-formation. Procedia CIRP, 2022, 106: 27-32

[325] Sharma A, Kumar Tiwari M. Digital twin design and analytics for scaling up electric vehicle battery production using robots. Int. J. Prod. Res., 2023, 61: 8512-8546

[326] Badmos O, Kopp A, Bernthaler T, et al. Image-based defect detection in lithium-ion battery electrode using convolutional neural networks. J. Intell. Manuf., 2020, 31: 885-897

[327] Pan Y, Kong XD, Yuan YB, et al. Detecting the foreign matter defect in lithium-ion batteries based on battery pilot manufacturing line data analyses. Energy, 2023, 262

[328] Müller S, Sauter C, Shunmugasundaram R, et al. Deep learning-based segmentation of lithium-ion battery microstructures enhanced by artificially generated electrodes. Nat. Commun., 2021, 12: 6205

[329] Zhang K, Ren F, Wang XL, et al. Finding a needle in the haystack: identification of functionally important minority phases in an operating battery. Nano Lett., 2017, 17: 7782-7788

[330] Dixit MB, Verma A, Zaman W, et al. Synchrotron imaging of pore formation in Li metal solid-state batteries aided by machine learning. ACS Appl. Energy Mater., 2020, 3: 9534-9542

[331] Xu YH, Hu EY, Zhang K, et al. In situ visualization of state-of-charge heterogeneity within a LiCoO₂ particle that evolves upon cycling at different rates. ACS Energy Lett., 2017, 2: 1240-1245

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China(52375144)

China Postdoctoral Science Foundation(2022M721138)

Shanghai Pujiang Programme(23PJD019)