Non-enzymatic glycation of proteins: Mechanisms and roles in biological aging and the pathogenesis of metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases

Abstract

Global societies are currently facing a significant demographic challenge characterized by progressive aging and an increase in age-related pathological processes. One of the fundamental mechanisms underlying biological aging and the development of modern non-communicable diseases is the accumulation of harmful metabolic by-products. Particular importance is attributed to advanced glycation end products, which are formed through the non-enzymatic glycation of proteins. This process occurs when reducing sugars, primarily glucose, react with free primary amino groups of N-terminal amino acids or lysine residues. This chemical pathway, known as the Maillard reaction, results in the formation of permanent, pathological cross-links between proteins. These modifications not only alter individual protein structures but also significantly alter the physicochemical properties of the extracellular matrix, leading to tissue stiffness and loss of physiological function. Scientific evidence indicates that glycation plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of a wide spectrum of chronic conditions, including Alzheimer’s disease, atherosclerosis, diabetic nephropathy, heart failure, sarcopenia, and chronic lung diseases. Understanding the dynamics of these molecular interactions is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies aimed at slowing down the aging process and mitigating metabolic complications in geriatric patients.

Keywords

Glycation / Protein / Biological aging / Carboxymethyllysine / Advanced glycation end products / Maillard reaction

Acknowledgements

None.

Funding

This work was funded by the Ministry of Education and Science, Poland, under the research project number WZ/WB-IIŚ/7/2025.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare they have no competing interests.

Author contributions

Conceptualization:Agata Jabłońska-Trypuć Visualization: Agata Jabłońska-Trypuć

Writing–original draft: Agata Jabłońska-Trypuć, Maciej Gil, Adam Cudowski

Writing–review & editing: Agata Jabłońska-Trypuć, Adam Cudowski

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data

Not applicable.

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