Pharmacological potential of apigenin: a dietary flavonoid with emerging synergistic interactions in therapeutics

Abstract

Apigenin, a dietary flavonoid that occurs naturally in parsley, chamomile, and a variety of other plant foods, has attracted increasing scientific interest for its broad spectrum of pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and cardioprotective activities. Being structurally related to quercetin, apigenin exhibits significant therapeutic potential; however, its clinical application is limited by poor aqueous solubility and low bioavailability. Recent studies have investigated the synergistic ability of apigenin when it is used in combination with a variety of small-molecule agents to overcome these challenges and improve therapeutic efficacy. Such combinations have been shown to be effective in the management of cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic syndromes through mechanisms that include modulation of oxidative stress, cell cycle arrest, induction of apoptosis, and interference with major signaling pathways like PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, and MAPK. This review uniquely focuses on drug-specific synergistic interactions between apigenin and conventional small-molecule therapeutics, highlighting mechanistic pathways such as PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, MAPK, and drug transporter modulation. By critically analyzing these interactions, the study provides insights into combination-based therapeutic strategies and identifies key gaps for clinical translation. The inclusion criteria comprised studies published between 2000 and 2025, written in English, focusing on the pharmacological activity of apigenin. Electronic academic databases like PubMed, IEEE Xplore, Scopus, and ScienceDirect that provide extensive access to peer-reviewed medical and technological studies were the primary source of literature reviewed in this study. Keywords like “pharmacological evaluation,” “synergistic effects,” and “apigenin” were used to choose articles. This search strategy enables the identification of relevant original studies and review articles addressing the therapeutic potential of apigenin.

Keywords

apigenin / flavonoid / synergy / anticancer / anti-inflammatory / bioavailability / combination therapy

References

[1] de Araújo FF, de Paulo Farias D, Neri—Numa IA, Pastore GM. Polyphenols and their applications: An approach in food chemistry and innovation potential. Food Chem. 2021;338:127535.

[2] Hostetler GL, Ralston RA, Schwartz SJ. Flavones: Food Sources, Bioavailability, Metabolism, and Bioactivity. Adv Nutr. 2017;8:423—35.

[3] Brad K, Zhang Y. Study on extraction and purification of apigenin and the physical and chemical properties of its complex with lecithin. Pharmacogn Mag. 2018;14:203—6.

[4] Salehi B, Venditti A, Sharifi—Rad M, Kręgiel D, Sharifi—Rad J, Durazzo A, et al. The Therapeutic Potential of Apigenin. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20:1305.

[5] Xiao J, Muzashvili TS, Georgiev MI. Advances in the biotechnological glycosylation of valuable flavonoids. Biotechnol Adv. 2014;32:1145—56.

[6] Rawla P, Sunkara T, Gaduputi V. Epidemiology of Pancreatic Cancer: Global Trends, Etiology and Risk Factors. World J Oncol. 2019;10:10-27.

[7] Baskar R, Lee KA, Yeo R, Yeoh KW. Cancer and Radiation Therapy: Current Advances and Future Directions. Int J Med Sci. 2012;9:193—9.

[8] Prakash O, Kumar A, Tiwari S, Bajpai P. The versatility of apigenin: Especially as a chemopreventive agent for cancer. J Holist Integr Pharm. 2024;5:249—56.

[9] Ashrafizadeh M, Bakhoda MR, Bahmanpour Z, Ilkhani K, Zarrabi A, Makvandi P, et al. Apigenin as Tumor Suppressor in Cancers: Biotherapeutic Activity, Nanodelivery, and Mechanisms With Emphasis on Pancreatic Cancer. Front Chem. 2020;8:829.

[10] Avila—Carrasco L, Majano P, Sánchez—Toméro JA, Selgas R, López—Cabrera M, Aguilera A, et al. Natural Plants Compounds as Modulators of Epithelial—to—Mesenchymal Transition. Front Pharmacol. 2019;10:715.

[11] Yan X, Qi M, Li P, Zhan Y, Shao H. Apigenin in cancer therapy: anti—cancer effects and mechanisms of action. Cell Biosci. 2017;7:50.

[12] Meng S, Zhu Y, Li JF, Wang X, Liang Z, Li SQ, et al. Apigenin inhibits renal cell carcinoma cell proliferation. Oncotarget. 2017;8:19834—51.

[13] Oyenihi OR, Oyenihi AB, Alabi TD, Tade OG, Adeyanju AA, Oguntibeju OO. Reactive oxygen species: Key players in the anticancer effects of apigenin? J Food Biochem. 2022;46:e14060.

[14] Li Y, Cheng X, Chen C, Huijuan W, Zhao H, Liu W, et al. Apigenin, a flavonoid constituent derived fromP. villosa, inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma cell growth by CyclinD1/CDK4 regulation via p38 MAPK—p21 signaling . Pathol Res Pract. 2020;216:152701.

[15] Afshari AR, Mollazadeh H, Soukhtanloo M, Hosseini A, Mohtashami E, Jalili—Nik M, et al. Modulation of Calcium Signaling in Glioblastoma Multiforme: A Therapeutic Promise for Natural Products. Mini—Rev Med Chem. 2020;20:1879-99.

[16] Nayaka HB, Londonkar RL, Umesh MK, Tukappa A. Antibacterial Attributes of Apigenin, Isolated fromPortulaca oleracea L. Int J Bacteriol.2014;2014:175851.

[17] Salih EYA, Julkunen—Tiitto R, Luukkanen O, Sipi M, Fahmi MKM, Fyhrquist PJ. Potential Anti—Tuberculosis Activity of the Extracts and Their Active Components ofAnogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill. and Perr. with Special Emphasis on Polyphenols . Antibiotics. 2020;9:364.

[18] Bernardes NR, Heggdorne—Araújo M, Borges IF, Almeida FM, Amaral EP, Lasunskaia EB, et al. Nitric oxide production, inhibitory, antioxidant and antimycobacterial activities of the fruits extract and flavonoid content ofSchinus terebinthifolius . Rev Bras Farmacogn. 2014;24:644—50.

[19] Hu J, Li Z, Xu LT, Sun AJ, Fu XY, Zhang L, et al. Protective Effect of Apigenin on Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury of the Isolated Rat Heart. Cardiovasc Toxicol. 2014;15:241—9.

[20] Zhu ZY, Gao T, Huang Y, Xue J, Xie ML. Apigenin ameliorates hypertension—induced cardiac hypertrophy and down—regulates cardiac hypoxia inducible factor—lα in rats. Food Funct. 2016;7:1992—8.

[21] Goyal S, Chandrayan G, Mahajan U, Patil C. PS 13—22 APIGENIN ATTENUATES ISOPROTERENOL INDUCED MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION IN DIABETIC RATS VIA MODULATION OF PPAR—γ PATHWAY. J Hypertens. 2016;34:e431-2.

[22] Li F, Lang F, Zhang H, Xu L, Wang Y, Zhai C, et al. Apigenin Alleviates Endotoxin—Induced Myocardial Toxicity by Modulating Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Autophagy. Oxidative Med Cell Longev.2017;2017:2302896.

[23] Xu Y, Li X, Wang H. Protective Roles of Apigenin Against Cardiometabolic Diseases: A Systematic Review. Front Nutr. 2022;9:875826.

[24] Hedayati N, Yaghoobi A, Salami M, Gholinezhad Y, Aghadavood F, Eshraghi R, et al. Impact of polyphenols on heart failure and cardiac hypertrophy: clinical effects and molecular mechanisms. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2023;10:1174816.

[25] Domaszewska—Szostek A, Puzianowska—Kuźnicka M, Kuryłowicz A. Flavonoids in Skin Senescence Prevention and Treatment. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22:6814.

[26] Sang Y, Zhang F, Wang H, Yao J, Chen R, Zhou Z, et al. Apigenin exhibits protective effects in a mouse model of d—galactose—induced aging via activating the Nrf2 pathway. Food Funct. 2017;8:2331—40.

[27] Kramer DJ, Johnson AA. Apigenin: a natural molecule at the intersection of sleep and aging. Front Nutr. 2024;11:1359176.

[28] Zhao L, Wang JL, Liu R, Li XX, Li JF, Zhang L. Neuroprotective, Anti—Amyloidogenic and Neurotrophic Effects of Apigenin in an Alzheimer’s Disease Mouse Model. Molecules. 2013;18:9949-65.

[29] Liu R, Zhang T, Yang H, Lan X, Ying J, Du G. The Flavonoid Apigenin Protects Brain Neurovascular Coupling against Amyloid—β25—35—Induced Toxicity in Mice. J Alzheimer's Dis. 2011;24:85-100.

[30] Siddique YH, Rahul, Ara G, Afzal M, Varshney H, Gaur K, et al. Beneficial effects of apigenin on the transgenic Drosophila model of Alzheimer's disease. Chem—Biol Interact. 2022;366:110120.

[31] Olayinka JN, Eduviere AT, Okosun MO, Amadi MC, Ikpen JO. Apigenin exhibits memory enhancing activity through the restoration of oxido—endocrine balance and upregulation of BDNF/ERK/CREB signalling pathways in stressed mice. Naunyn—Schmiedeb Arch Pharmacol. 2025;398:8845-59.

[32] Fu C, Zheng Y, Lin K, Wang H, Chen T, Li L, et al. Neuroprotective effect of apigenin against hypoxic—ischemic brain injury in neonatal ratsvia activation of the PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling pathway . Food Funct. 2021;12:2270-81.

[33] Olasehinde TA, Olaokun OO. The Beneficial Role of Apigenin against Cognitive and Neurobehavioural Dysfunction: A Systematic Review of Preclinical Investigations. Biomedicines. 2024;12:178.

[34] Hashemi P, Fahanik Babaei J, Vazifekhah S, Nikbakht F. Evaluation of the neuroprotective, anticonvulsant, and cognition—improvement effects of apigenin in temporal lobe epilepsy: Involvement of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2019;22:752-8.

[35] de Oliveira DD, da Silva CP, Iglesias BB, Beleboni RO. Vitexin Possesses Anticonvulsant and Anxiolytic—Like Effects in Murine Animal Models. Front Pharmacol. 2020;11:1181.

[36] Shao C, Yuan J, Liu Y, Qin Y, Wang X, Gu J, et al. Epileptic brain fluorescent imaging reveals apigenin can relieve the myeloperoxidase—mediated oxidative stress and inhibit ferroptosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2020;117:10155-64.

[37] Rahmani AH, Alsahli MA, Almatroudi A, Almogbel MA, Khan AA, Anwar S, et al. The Potential Role of Apigenin in Cancer Prevention and Treatment. Molecules. 2022;27:6051.

[38] Gallelli L, Galasso O, Falcone D, Southworth S, Greco M, Ventura V, et al. The effects of nonsteroidal anti—inflammatory drugs on clinical outcomes, synovial fluid cytokine concentration and signal transduction pathways in knee osteoarthritis. A randomized open label trial. Osteoarthr Cartil. 2013;21:1400—8.

[39] Ngo V, Duennwald ML. Nrf2 and Oxidative Stress: A General Overview of Mechanisms and Implications in Human Disease. Antioxidants. 2022;11:2345.

[40] Herman R, Kravos NA, Jensterle M, Janež A, Dolžan V. Metformin and Insulin Resistance: A Review of the Underlying Mechanisms behind Changes in GLUT4—Mediated Glucose Transport. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:1264.

[41] Cui S, Kim E. Quorum sensing and antibiotic resistance in polymicrobial infections. Commun Integr Biol. 2024;17:2415598.

[42] Cushnie TP, Hamilton VE, Lamb AJ. Assessment of the antibacterial activity of selected flavonoids and consideration of discrepancies between previous reports. Microbiol Res. 2003;158:281—9.

[43] Kim S, Woo ER, Lee DG. Apigenin promotes antibacterial activity via regulation of nitric oxide and superoxide anion production. J Basic Microbiol. 2020;60:862-72.

[44] Pei ZJ, Li C, Dai W, Lou Z, Sun X, Wang H, et al. The Anti—Biofilm Activity and Mechanism of Apigenin—7—O—Glucoside AgainstStaphylococcus aureus andEscherichia coli . Infect Drug Resist. 2023;16:2129—40.

[45] Jafar M, Sajjad Ahmad Khan M, Salahuddin M, Zahoor S, MohammedHesham Slais H, Ibrahim Alalwan L, et al. Development of apigenin loaded gastroretentive microsponge for the targeting ofHelicobacter pylori . Saudi Pharm J. 2023;31:659-68.

[46] Chen F, He D, Yan B. Apigenin Attenuates Allergic Responses of Ovalbumin—Induced Allergic Rhinitis Through Modulation of Th1/Th2 Responses in Experimental Mice. Dose—Response. 2020;18:1559325820904799.

[47] Li RR, Pang LL, Du Q, Shi Y, Dai WJ, Yin KS. Apigenin inhibits allergen—induced airway inflammation and switches immune response in a murine model of asthma. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 2010;32:364—70.

[48] Li J, Zhang B. Apigenin protects ovalbumin—induced asthma through the regulation of Th17 cells. Fitoterapia. 2013;91:298-304.

[49] Lee JY, Kim JM, Kim CJ. Flavones derived from nature attenuate the immediate and late—phase asthmatic responses to aerosolized—ovalbumin exposure in conscious guinea pigs. Inflamm Res. 2013;63:53-60.

[50] Wang X, Hui Y, Zhao L, Hao Y, Guo H, Ren F. Oral administration ofLactobacillus paracasei L9 attenuates PM2.5—induced enhancement of airway hyperresponsiveness and allergic airway response in murine model of asthma . PLOS ONE. 2017;12:e0171721.

[51] Oraibi A, AlShammari A, Mohsien R, Obaid W. Investigation the Antibacterial Activity ofPortulaca oleracea L. Tissue Cultures in vitro . J Pharm Res Int. 2017;18:1-7.

[52] Allemailem KS, Almatroudi A, Alharbi HOA, AlSuhaymi N, Alsugoor MH, Aldakheel FM, et al. Apigenin: A Bioflavonoid with a Promising Role in Disease Prevention and Treatment. Biomedicines. 2024;12:1353.

[53] Vinayagam R, Xu B. Antidiabetic properties of dietary flavonoids: a cellular mechanism review. Nutr Metab. 2015;12:60.

[54] Hossain CM, Ghosh MK, Satapathy BS, Dey NS, Mukherjee B. Apigenin causes biochemical modulation, GLUT4 and CD38 alterations to improve diabetes and to protect damages of some vital organs in experimental diabetes. Am J Pharmacol Toxicol. 2014;9:39-52.

[55] Ren B, Qin W, Wu F, Wang S, Pan C, Wang L, et al. Apigenin and naringenin regulate glucose and lipid metabolism, and ameliorate vascular dysfunction in type 2 diabetic rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2016;773:13-23.

[56] Shailendra B, Shankaraiah P. Antioxidant and Alpha Amylase Inhibitory Activity of Apigenin in Alloxan Induced Diabetic Rats. UTTAR PRADESH J ZOOL. 2024;45:125-31.

[57] Haridevamuthu B, Ranjan Nayak SPR, Murugan R, Pachaiappan R, Ayub R, Aljawdah HM, et al. Prophylactic effects of apigenin against hyperglycemia—associated amnesia via activation of the Nrf2/ARE pathway in zebrafish. Eur J Pharmacol. 2024;976:176680.

[58] Liu H, Huang P, Wang X, Ma Y, Tong J, Li J, et al. Apigenin analogs as α—glucosidase inhibitors with antidiabetic activity. Bioorg Chem. 2024;143:107059.

[59] Ihim SA, Kaneko YK, Yamamoto M, Yamaguchi M, Kimura T, Ishikawa T. Apigenin Alleviates Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress—Mediated Apoptosis in INS—1 β—Cells. Biol Pharm Bull. 2023;46:630—5.

[60] Herbener VJ, Burster T, Goreth A, Pruss M, von Bandemer H, Baisch T, et al. Considering the Experimental Use of Temozolomide in Glioblastoma Research. Biomedicines. 2020;8:151.

[61] Das B, Sarkar C, Rawat VS, Kalita D, Deka S, Agnihotri A. Promise of the NLRP3 Inflammasome Inhibitors in In Vivo Disease Models. Molecules. 2021;26:4996.

[62] Solnier J, Zhang Y, Roh K, Kuo YC, Du M, Wood S, et al. A Pharmacokinetic Study of Different Quercetin Formulations in Healthy Participants: A Diet—Controlled, Crossover, Single— and Multiple—Dose Pilot Study. Evid—Based Complement Altern Med.2023;2023:9727539.

[63] Nozhat Z, Heydarzadeh S, Memariani Z, Ahmadi A. Chemoprotective and chemosensitizing effects of apigenin on cancer therapy. Cancer Cell Int. 2021;21:574.

[64] Ayyildiz A, Koc H, Turkekul K, Erdogan S. Co—administration of apigenin with doxorubicin enhances anti—migration and antiproliferative effects via PI3K/PTEN/AKT pathway in prostate cancer cells. Exp Oncol. 2023;43:125-34.

[65] Liu R, Ji P, Liu B, Qiao H, Wang X, Zhou L, et al. Apigenin enhances the cisplatin cytotoxic effect through p53—modulated apoptosis. Oncol Lett. 2016;13:1024—30.

[66] Dasari S, Njiki S, Mbemi A, Yedjou CG, Tchounwou PB. Pharmacological Effects of Cisplatin Combination with Natural Products in Cancer Chemotherapy. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:1532.

[67] Chen M, Wang X, Zha D, Cai F, Zhang W, He Y, et al. Apigenin potentiates TRAIL therapy of non—small cell lung cancer via upregulating DR4/DR5 expression in a p53—dependent manner. Sci Rep. 2016;6:35468.

[68] Barbosa F, Cunha A, Barbosa J, Faria J, Queirós O. The Dual Role of Metformin: Repurposing an Antidiabetic Drug for Cancer Therapy. Appl Sci. 2025;15:11576.

[69] Warkad MS, Kim CH, Kang BG, Park SH, Jung JS, Feng JH, et al. Metformin—induced ROS upregulation as amplified by apigenin causes profound anticancer activity while sparing normal cells. Sci Rep. 2021;11:14002.

[70] Foretz M, Guigas B, Viollet B. Metformin: update on mechanisms of action and repurposing potential. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2023;19:460—76.

[71] Dhiman S, Dhankhar S, Garg A, Rohilla M, Saini M, Singh TG, et al. Mechanistic insights and therapeutic potential of astilbin and apigenin in diabetic cardiomyopathy. Heliyon. 2024;10:e39996.

[72] Kumar V, Singh A, Sharma N, Saini R, Kumar H, El—Shazly M, et al. Combating bacterial antibiotic resistance with phytocompounds: Current trends and future perspectives. Med Drug Discov. 2025;28:100228.

[73] Sionov RV, Steinberg D. Targeting the Holy Triangle of Quorum Sensing, Biofilm Formation, and Antibiotic Resistance in Pathogenic Bacteria. Microorganisms. 2022;10:1239.

[74] Oyagbemi AA, Femi—Akinlosotu OM, Obasa AA, Ojo MS, Salami AT, Ajibade TO, et al. Apigenin mitigates oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and cognitive impairment but enhances learning and memory in aluminum chloride—induced neurotoxicity in rats. Alzheimer's Dement. 2025;21:e70223.

[75] Dourado NS, Souza CDS, de Almeida MMA, Bispo da Silva A, Dos Santos BL, Silva VDA, et al. Neuroimmunomodulatory and Neuroprotective Effects of the Flavonoid Apigenin in in vitro Models of Neuroinflammation Associated With Alzheimer’s Disease. Front Aging Neurosci. 2020;12:119.

[76] Yang C, Song J, Hwang S, Choi J, Song G, Lim W. Apigenin enhances apoptosis induction by 5—fluorouracil through regulation of thymidylate synthase in colorectal cancer cells. Redox Biology. 2021;47:102144.

[77] Xu Y, Xin Y, Diao Y, Lu C, Fu J, Luo L, et al. Synergistic effects of apigenin and paclitaxel on apoptosis of cancer cells. PLoS One. 2011;6:e29169.

[78] Wang YY, Luo BZ, Li CM, Liang JL, Liu Z, Chen WM, et al. Discovery of 3—hydroxypyridin—4(1H)—ones ester of ciprofloxacin as prodrug to combat biofilm—associatedPseudomonas aeruginosa . Eur J Med Chem. 2025;289:117396.

[79] Pandey V, Ranjan N, Narne P, Babu PP. Roscovitine effectively enhances antitumor activity of temozolomide in vitro and in vivo mediated by increased autophagy and Caspase—3 dependent apoptosis. Sci Rep. 2019;9:5012.

[80] Choi EJ, Kim GH. 5—Fluorouracil combined with apigenin enhances anticancer activity through induction of apoptosis in human breast cancer MDA—MB—453 cells. Oncol Rep. 2009;22:1533-7.

[81] Nimal S, Kumbhar N, Saruchi, Rathore S, Naik N, Paymal S, et al. Apigenin and its combination with Vorinostat induces apoptotic—mediated cell death in TNBC by modulating the epigenetic and apoptotic regulators and related miRNAs. Sci Rep. 2024;14:9540.

[82] Akilandeswari K, Ruckmani K. Synergistic antibacterial effect of apigenin with β—lactam antibiotics and modulation of bacterial resistance by a possible membrane effect against methicillin resistantStaphylococcus aureus . Cell Mol Biol. 2016;62:74-82.

[83] Seo KH, Lee HS, Jung B, Ko HM, Choi JH, Park SJ, et al. Estrogen enhances angiogenesis through a pathway involving platelet—activating factor—mediated nuclear factor—κB activation. Cancer Res. 2004;64:6482—8.

[84] Nadar S, Khan T, Patching SG, Omri A. Development of Antibiofilm Therapeutics Strategies to Overcome Antimicrobial Drug Resistance. Microorganisms. 2022;10:303.

[85] Sreekumar S, Kiran MS. Combinatorial effect of Apigenin—resveratrol on white adipocyte plasticity and trans—differentiation for activating lipid metabolism. BioFactors. 2024;51:e2111.

[86] Guo X, Liu J, Cai S, Wang O, Ji B. Synergistic interactions of apigenin, naringin, quercetin and emodin on inhibition of 3T3—L1 preadipocyte differentiation and pancreas lipase activity. Obes Res Clin Pract. 2016;10:327-39.

[87] Qiao Y, Zhang Z, Zhai Y, Yan X, Zhou W, Liu H, et al. Apigenin Alleviates Obesity—Associated Metabolic Syndrome by Regulating the Composition of the Gut Microbiome. Front Microbiol. 2022;12:805827.

[88] Alam W, Rocca C, Khan H, Hussain Y, Aschner M, De Bartolo A, et al. Current Status and Future Perspectives on Therapeutic Potential of Apigenin: Focus on Metabolic—Syndrome—Dependent Organ Dysfunction. Antioxidants. 2021;10:1643.

[89] Javadi B, Sobhani Z. Role of apigenin in targeting metabolic syndrome: A systematic review. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2024;27:524-34.

[90] Pandita G, Mittal D, Kashyap P, Lai W, Kumar N, Mehra R, et al. Apigenin and its derivatives in breast cancer prevention and therapy: a review on bioavailability and recent developments. Phytomed Plus. 2025;5:100870.

[91] Seo HS, Ku JM, Choi HS, Woo JK, Lee BH, Kim DS, et al. Apigenin overcomes drug resistance by blocking the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 signaling in breast cancer cells. Oncol Rep. 2017;38:715—24.

[92] Al—Naqeb G, Kalmpourtzidou A, Giampieri F, De Giuseppe R, Cena H. Genotoxic and antigenotoxic medicinal plant extracts and their main phytochemicals: “A review”. Front Pharmacol. 2024;15:1448731.

[93] Tobias JD, Leder M. Procedural sedation: A review of sedative agents, monitoring, and management of complications. Saudi J Anaesth. 2011;5:395-410.

[94] Thomas SD, Jha NK, Jha SK, Sadek B, Ojha S. Pharmacological and Molecular Insight on the Cardioprotective Role of Apigenin. Nutrients. 2023;15:385.

[95] Srivastava JK, Shankar E, Gupta S. Chamomile: A herbal medicine of the past with a bright future (Review). Mol Med Rep. 2010;3:895-901.

[96] Wang M, Firrman J, Liu L, Yam K. A Review on Flavonoid Apigenin: Dietary Intake, ADME, Antimicrobial Effects, and Interactions with Human Gut Microbiota. BioMed Res Int.2019;2019:7010467.

[97] Singh P, Mishra SK, Noel S, Sharma S, Rath SK. Acute Exposure of Apigenin Induces Hepatotoxicity in Swiss Mice. PLoS ONE. 2012;7:e31964.

[98] Vanshita, Rawal T, Bhati H, Bansal K. Harnessing the power of novel drug delivery systems for effective delivery of apigenin: an updated review. J Microencapsul. 2024;42:83-106.

[99] Mondal A, Dikshit H, Kumar M, Mishra H, Mohan L, Dhar H. Pharmacodynamic interaction profile of apigenin with diclofenac in an experimental model of inflammation in rats. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2025;69:360—5.